A value is an attribute that makes something an object of appreciation and respect, meaning that this attribute makes that thing sought after and desirable. It does not matter whether one individual or many hold this desire. For example, lineage has a very high value to the nobility, wisdom has a great value for the scholars, and bravery is a value coveted by princes and chiefs.
Values can be a subject of study. The study of values entails the examination of something with respect to it being desirable in and of itself, as well as the investigation and examination of the value of various things, the different types of values that exist, and their origins.
If “values” are discussed in purely abstract terms, then the discussion will be of an idealistic nature. If, on the other hand, they are discussed in terms of their natural, psychological, or social causes, then the discussion will be of an existential and practical nature.
The best discussion of “values” is one that deals with both their ideal and practical aspects. This is because it is not possible to conceptualize values in either of these terms without considering the other. If it were not for this fact, then values would not have any existence and existence itself would not be able to hold any value.
Justice
When human life becomes devoid of justice, it becomes submerged in disorder and confusion. Oppression between people becomes the order of the day in the most horrible way, whereby the strong destroys the weak, the one who is capable denies the rights of the one who cannot fend for himself, the aggressor spills the blood of the one he overpowers, the ruler consumes the rights of his subjects, and the great in every way dominates the small. Nothing but the restoration of justice can remedy such a horrid state of affairs.
So, what is justice, and what forms does it take? What are its benefits? How do the Muslims apply it in their lives? We will try to deal with these questions.
Justice implies that everyone should receive their rights or whatever they deserve. If they deserve good, then they should receive good. If they deserve evil, then they should receive evil. Due to the importance and prominence of justice, Allah sent His Messengers and His books without discriminating between anyone with regard to their rights. Allah says:
Indeed we have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs and revealed to them the Scripture and the Balance that mankind may establish justice.
Justice is the custodian of the secular and the sacred. It is the source of good for individuals and nations, bringing their hearts and souls together in harmony, equity, and affection. Conflict and disunity are removed from society. By the dictates of justice, actions and people are measured. The standards of justice never vary.
Whoever prefers injustice exposes his religion to confusion, his life to ruin, his honor to disgrace, and his prosperity to loss.
The assurance that the rights and property of the individual are secure, and that justice is firmly established in people’s dealings with one another is a prerequisite for human prosperity. This is why justice is such an indispensable value in Islam, which ties justice into every provision of its Divine Law. There is no provision in Islam that does not have justice as one of its aims. Justice is intrinsically tied into its administrative, political, and judicial systems. It is tied into every other aspect of the Islamic order, in every sphere of human life, like the family order, the educational system, the economy, the social order, personal behavior, and intellectual activity.
History testifies to this, for the societies that were under Islamic rule were free from serious moral degeneration, secure from imbalance and inconsistent standards, and protected from wanton degradation and loss of life.
Justice takes many forms. There is worldly justice and justice that will only be realized in the Hereafter. Justice in the worldly life covers the course of human existence from the creation of Adam (peace be upon him) to the last days of the Earth. Allah says:
Indeed we have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs and revealed to them the Scripture and the Balance that mankind may establish justice.
Since people are ever prone to differ and are overpowered by their desires and lusts, causing them to oppress one another, Prophets were sent throughout the ages to successive generations to establish justice among the people. If it were not for them, human life would have been corrupted and nations brought to ruin.
In the story of the two sons of Adam – which is forever preserved for us in the Qur’ân – we get a clear picture of the seriousness and the harmful nature of oppression, in that it was the very first sin of man to occur on the face of the Earth. It stresses the necessity of justice so that humanity can live in peace and stability. This worldly justice must be explained and clarified, because it rests on the ability of people to apply the dictates of divine justice as outlined by the tenets of Islamic Law.
Justice in the Hereafter is the justice that Allah has reserved for the Day of Judgment. The oppressor may escape from the rule of justice in this world so as not be taken to task in this worldly life for his sins. His injustice will not be redressed in this world, but in the Hereafter. Likewise, the one who upholds justice in the world looks expectantly for a great reward that Allah has prepared in the Hereafter as compensation for patience and forbearance. Allah says:
The scales of justice will be set forth on the Day of Judgment so no soul will be wronged in the least. If it be the weight of a mustard seed, We will bring it. And We are sufficient to take account.
This is justice in the most absolute sense, because Allah Himself is the one who dispenses it, Allah whose knowledge is not eluded by the smallest particle in the heavens or the Earth.
Justice is comprehensive and universal, embracing human beings, animals, and the rest of Creation. As for its comprehensiveness with respect to the human being, there are many proofs that establish it. Among these is Allah’s statement:
…and do not let the enmity and hatred of others make you avoid justice. Be just, for this is nearer to piety.
This verse addresses every rational person. It is obligatory upon everyone who possesses reason to establish justice throughout his (domain), both with himself as well as with others. This applies even if that other person is an enemy or opponent, because the rule of justice has no limits. It extends beyond the boundaries of religion and creed, beyond the boundaries of lineage and family ties, beyond the boundaries of nation and country. Whoever possesses that which is the right of someone else cannot use religion, lineage, or nationality as an excuse to oppress. On the contrary, human rights must be granted to all, because justice is a right that all people share equally.
As for justice being extended to the animals, people have been ordered not to oppress or abuse them. This forbidden abuse might take the form of confinement, starvation, or overwork, among other things. A woman entered the hellfire on account of a cat that she imprisoned, neither feeding it nor letting it hunt for food.
A woman entered Paradise on account of a dog that she found panting and swallowing the earth out of severe thirst. She went down to a well and filled her sock with water and gave it to the dog to drink. Allah rewarded her for this act with Paradise.
An animal cannot establish justice in its own life, because it cannot be held legally accountable due to it being unable to comprehend the divine injunctions. It can, though, be dealt with justly by those who live in its midst and are ordered to treat it with justice and to abstain from abusing it.
Regarding how justice comprehends the rest of Creation, this is what we can observe in the movements of the things that travel through the Earth and the things that travel through space. Their movements are just. We see justice between them in the swiftness and slowness of their movements, like the alternation of night and day, and the paths of the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets. For this reason, Allah says,
The Sun runs on its fixed course for an appointed term. This is the decree of the Almighty, the All-Knowing. We have decreed phases for the Moon until it returns like an old, dried, curved date stalk. It is not proper for the Sun to overtake the Moon, or for the night to outstrip the day. Each floats in its own orbit.
We see this as well in the relationship between water and dry land. If the water were to overrun the land, it would wipe out everything that thrives on the land, and if the water were to become depleted, everything that lives in the sea would die. We can observe justness in the biological and chemical makeup of living things. Justness has been ingrained in the life-functions of every living thing in Creation, and in the orderly movements of every nonliving object that moves through it.
Justice, when considered in relationship to human beings, can be divided into two categories:
1. Personal justice: This is the manifestation of a psychological balance within a person, whereby the internal forces – like reason, aggression, and desire – stay in conformity with a standard that returns to the individual. This consideration can be of an internal origin as a result of personal contemplation, or from external effects like acquired knowledge, learning, and perceptions. For example, a person can do justice to the body and soul, to the mind and thoughts, in giving and taking, in efforts and deeds, and in everything else that is specific to a person in the course of his or her life.
2. Societal justice: This is justice achieved by taking into consideration the rights of others and the accord and respect that they deserve. A person must be just in the demanding of rights and in the fulfillment of obligations. Every form of interaction between people that contains an element of justice can be given as an example of this, like justice in buying and selling, in governing and passing judgments, in giving testimony and fulfilling trusts, and in withholding things and giving them away.
A chief or leader – who is a single person – is responsible to the people under his or her authority to apply the rules of justice in making their appointments by assigning tasks and giving posts to the proper people who have the capability to do the job. A judge must apply justice in dealing with litigants by giving each of them what they are entitled to and by compelling the one who is obligated to another to carry out his obligation.
Likewise, a husband must be just to his wife or his wives and give to each one what she is lawfully entitled to with respect to such things as maintenance, housing, time, transportation, food, and clothing. A father is expected to be just to his children in their upbringing, education, health, and the things that he gives them and withholds from them. His must not show some of them preferential treatment.
All of this is clearly established by the sacred texts. Allah says:
- Allah commands you to give over the trusts to their lawful recipients, and if you judge between people, that you judge justly.
- If you fear that you will not deal justly with the orphans, then marry (other) women of your choice, two, three, or four. If you fear you will not deal justly with them, then (marry) only one.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Fear Allah and deal justly with your children.”
The Benefits of Justice
A society that guarantees justice will reap great benefits and rewards. Justice gives people a sense of security and stability, which in turn, inspires them to be more industrious and productive. This allows for the development and expansion of civilization and an overall increase in wealth and prosperity. It is quite clear that wealth and productive labor are among the most important factors that allow nations to progress and flourish.
On the other hand, violation of the wealth and property of others and contempt for their rights destroys the impetus for productive work, and puts an end to industry and activity, because people do not feel secure in their lives and have no trust in each other. This leads, in turn, to economic collapse, social stagnation, and political breakdown.
Ibn Khaldûn writes:
Know that transgression against the property of people takes away their desire for acquisition and earning, because they see that the result of such activity is merely that such earnings will be seized from their hands. Thus, productive activity declines in direct relation to the degree that property rights are violated. The development of civilization and the prosperity of the marketplace hinges on productive labor. So, if people give up trying to earn a living, economic activity stagnates, wealth declines, and people disperse to other lands seeking their livelihood. The population of the region declines, its habitations become empty, its cities fall into degradation, and the country falls into a state of disorder.
The Practical Application of Justice in Islam
The Muslims, starting with Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him), put into practice the highest form of justice. Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) placed himself on the same level with the rest of humanity. The Qur’ân relates to us that he said:
“Verily I am a man like yourselves.”
He did not use his eminent and noble status in order to set himself apart from the rest of humanity and justify seizing their rights and property without just cause. Quite the contrary, he was a most admirable example for upholding justice, even against himself, in spite of the fact that he was Allah’s Prophet and Messenger.
It has been related that Asyad b. Khudayr (may Allah be pleased with him) was a righteous, cheerful, and handsome man. Once while he was in the presence of Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him), addressing the people and making them laugh, Allah’s Messenger jabbed him in his hip. He said: “You have injured me.”
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) then said: “You may take retribution.”
He said: “O Messenger of Allah, you have a shirt on and I do not.” Allah’s Messenger lifted his shirt. Asyad then embraced him and said, “By my mother and father, I wanted only this.” Then he kissed Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) on the hip.
This is one of the most striking examples of justice that the most equitable leaders throughout the centuries were never able to equal when dealing with their subjects.
Another example of the practical application of justice in Islam is that of `Umar b. al-Khattâb, the Commander of the Faithful, who would not let his testimony take precedence over anyone else’s testimony merely because he was the ruler. It has been related about him that while he was on his habitual nightly patrol to survey the condition of his subjects, he saw a man and woman committing adultery.
He later assembled the people and addressed them, saying: “O people, what would you say about a man and a woman who the Commander of the Faithful saw committing adultery?”
`Alî b. Abî Tâlib (may Allah be pleased with him) said: “The Commander of the Faithful would have to produce four witnesses or he would be lashed for bearing false testimony.” He then recited the following verse from the Qur’ân:
Those who accuse chaste women and do not produce four witnesses should be given eighty lashes and their testimony should never again be accepted. These people, they are the sinners.
The Commander of the Faithful had no recourse but to withhold the names of the perpetrators, because he realized that he would not be able to produce the rest of the witnesses, and in this matter he was no different than the rest of the Muslims.
Another example is that of `Alî b. Abî Tâlib, the fourth Caliph (may Allah be pleased with him). One day, he lost his coat of armor and found it in the possession of a Christian, so he took the case to the judge Shurayh. `Ali, as the plaintiff, said: “This coat of armor is mine. I neither sold it nor gave it away.”
Shurayh then asked the Christian about it, who said: “The coat of armor is none other than mine, and I do not consider the Commander of the Faithful to be a liar.”
Shurayh then turned to `Alî and said: “The coat of armor is in his possession. This gives him an apparent right over it. Do you have any evidence to support your claim?”
`Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) then said: “Shurayh is correct. I do not have any proof.” Thus, Shurayh ruled in favor of the Christian.
The Christian turned away, taking the coat of armor with him. He took only a few steps before he turned around and said: “As for myself, I bear witness that these are the laws of the Prophets. The Commander of the Faithful takes me to the judge and he rules in my favor against him. I bear witness that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad is his Messenger. The coat of armor is yours, O Commander of the Faithful. I was following behind your army while you were departing from Siffîn, and I came up from behind your multi-hued camel.”
`Alî (may Allah be pleased with him) said: “Since you have accepted Islam, then it is yours.”
There are numerous other examples that show how justice in Islam was put into practice to the highest degree. Allah says:
lieve, stand firmly for Allah as just witnesses and do not let the enmity and hatred of others make you avoid justice. Be just, for this is nearer to piety. Fear Allah. Verily Allah is well acquainted with what you do.
Freedom
Islam considers freedom to be a natural right of the human being. Living becomes devoid of worth when freedom is not present. When a person loses his or her freedom, his or her inner self dies, even though on the outside, he or she continues to live; eating, drinking, working, and going through the other motions of life. Islam elevates freedom to such a level that it has made free thought the proper way of coming to know about Allah’s existence, Allah’s existence being a fact that needs no external proofs or miracles to be known. Allah says:
There is no compulsion in religion. Guidance is clear from error.
The verse negates the use of compulsion in religion, though religious belief is the mightiest thing that a human may possess. This makes it quite clear that compultion is not to be tolerated in any other matter and that the human being is independent in what he or she possesses and does without being subjected to the will of anyone else. The individual has free will and free choice.
The Meaning of Freedom: Freedom is a person’s ability to do something or abstain from it of his or her own free will. It is a special quality enjoyed by every rational human being. With it, a person acts without the interference of others, because that person is not owned by anyone, not on the individual level, nor on the level of the state, society, or nation.
Does “freedom” mean being left completely without any regulation?
Islam’s recognition of freedom does not imply that it leaves the individual free of all restrictions and guidelines, because that kind of “freedom” is mere anarchy that gives free reign to lusts and base desires. It is well known that these vain desires bring more harm to the human being than they do good. For this reason, Islam forbids a person to follow them. Islam regards the human being as a naturally social creature who lives among many others of the same kind. No one's freedom is granted at the expense of another’s. Everyone must be given freedom on both the individual and societal levels. For this reason, Islam sets down certain rules and guidelines that guarantee the freedom of all. These guidelines can be outlined in the following manner:
A. The freedom of individuals and communities should never jeopardize the general order of society or destroy its foundations.
B. The freedom of individuals or communities should never cause the loss of more general rights. This is in consideration of their intrinsic value.
C. No one’s freedom should violate the freedom of others.
These regulations and guidelines show that Islam does not recognize individual freedom at the expense of the community, nor does it establish freedoms for communities at the expense of individuals. Instead, it strikes a balance between the two, giving everyone their just due.
Types of freedom:
• Individual freedom with reference to material concerns.
• Individual freedom with reference to more abstract matters.
Individual Freedom with Reference to Material Concerns:
A. Personal Freedom: A human being should be fully capable of disposing of his or her own affairs in every matter that is of personal significance without fearing injury to his or her person, property, or reputation as long as his or her activity does not transgress against the rights of others. Personal freedom implies the existence of two things:
1. Sanctity of the self: Islam places great emphasis on human dignity, and grants the human being a lofty status. It enjoins people to show respect for others and refrain from belittling them. Allah says:
- Truly, We have honored the children of Adam.
- And when your Lord said to the angels: ‘Verily I will place a vicegerent on the Earth.’ They said: ‘Will You place therein those who will make mischief and shed blood while we extol Your praises and glorify you?’ He said: ‘Verily I know what you know not.”
These texts call to the honor, nobility, and sanctity of the human being and give consideration for human faculties. Islam places the human being on the highest level. For this reason, Islam considers transgression against one person to be transgression against society as a whole. Likewise, it considers concern for one person to be concern for society as a whole. Allah says:
For this reason, we decreed for the Children of Israel that whoever kills a single soul unjustly or does mischief in the land will be like a person who has killed all of mankind and whoever saves a single soul will be like one who saved all of mankind.
This recognition of human dignity applies to everyone, whether male or female, ruler or subject. It is a right of every human being, regardless of color, race, or religion. Even the foundling in the street must be taken in and honored on account of that intrinsic human worth.
If anyone finds a child abandoned on the street, that person must take that child in. If no one does this, then everyone in the community is sinful and they are all responsible to Allah for the child’s demise.
In the same way that Islam emphasizes the dignity of the human being during his or her lifetime, it does so for the human being after death. Islam forbids mutilating the corpse and commands that the body be prepared for burial and then properly buried. Likewise, Islam prohibits sitting on graves or defecating on them.
2. Security of the self: Islam guarantees the safety of the person’s life, honor, and wealth. It is forbidden to kill, injure, or otherwise transgress against another human being. It does not matter whether this injury is physical, like imprisonment, or psychological, like verbal abuse.
To prevent all such forms of abuse and create an environment where people can exercise their personal freedom, Islamic Law prescribes disciplinary measures and punishments. The greater the transgression, the sterner the punishment. The punishment for murder is retribution. Allah says:
O you who believe, retribution is prescribed for you in murder.
Retribution is also required in cases of injury and dismemberment. Allah says:
We prescribed for them in it a life for a life, an eye for an eye, a nose for a nose, an ear for an ear, a tooth for a tooth, and retribution in injury.
`Umar b. al-Khattâb (may Allah be pleased with him) prohibited his governors from beating anyone except with the decree of a reputed judge. `Umar also demanded that the governors who disobeyed be beaten to the extent that they beat their subjects. `Umar went further to prohibit the governors from insulting any of their subjects, setting down a punishment for those governors who defied him in this.
B. Freedom of Travel: An individual is free to travel at will within his or her country and outside of it without any impediment. It is a natural right of a human being to be able to depart and return. It is a requirement of life to be able to do so. It is often necessary to earn a livelihood, find employment, seek knowledge, and achieve many other things. Movement is a quality of all living things. It is a necessary part of what it means to be alive. Freedom of movement is established by the Qur’ân, Sunnah, and the consensus of the jurists. In the Qur’ân, Allah says:
It is He Who made the Earth submit to you, so traverse its surface and eat of its sustenance and to Him is your return.
No one should be prohibited from movement except for an overriding consideration of the general welfare. When a plague struck Syria, `Umar b. al-Khattâb (may Allah be pleased with him) prohibited travel to Syria. He did so in order to carry out the instructions of Allah’s Messenger: “If you hear about a plague in a certain land, then do not go there, and if you are in a land when a plague strikes it, then do not leave and try to flee it.”
To facilitate the people’s freedom of movement, Islam prohibits any transgression being committed against travelers or hindrance being placed in their way. For the same reason, Islam has prescribed an extremely stern punishment for highway robbery. Allah says:
The recompense of those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger and go about in the Earth spreading mischief is that they should be killed or crucified or have their hands and feet cut off on opposite sides or be exiled from the land. This is a disgrace in this world, and they have in the Hereafter a great punishment.
In order to facilitate use of the roadways, the Prophet (peace be upon him) forbade his Companions from sitting down in them. He said: “Avoid sitting in the roadways.” His Companions responded: “O Messenger of Allah, we have no recourse but to sit in these places.” He said: “If this is the case, then give the road its rights.” They said: “What are the rights of the road, O Messenger of Allah?” He said: “Lowering the gaze, abstaining from abuse, returning the greeting of peace, enjoining what is right, and forbidding what is wrong.”
The streets should be used for what they are built for, like traveling and the transportation of goods. Using them for any other purpose is prohibited, especially if it leads to harming others.
Due to the importance of travel in the life of a Muslim and due to the fact that unforeseen problems often occur during travel, Allah has granted the wayfarer a right to a share of the Zakâh funds (alms) if needed, even if this person is affluent in his or her own land.
C. Freedom of Residence: Any person who is capable of securing a place of residence for his or her self has the freedom to do so. Likewise, the state should provide suitable housing for those who are incapable of doing so for themselves, so that they can have at least a minimal standard of living.
Abû Sa`îd al-Khudrî (may Allah be pleased with him) relates that Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Whoever has excess shelter should provide shelter for one who has none, and whoever has excess provisions should provide for one who has none.”
The jurist Ibn Hazm uses this hadîth and others as proof that the affluent Muslims are expected to provide for the needs of the poor when the Zakâh funds and tributes are insufficient to address their basic needs. These needs are food, drink, clothing, and shelter from the heat and cold. The prominent people in society and in government are responsible to collect these funds and distribute them to the needy, both Muslim and Non-Muslim, because the fulfillment of these basic needs is a universal right of all humanity. Every member of society should be guaranteed these things.
When a person owns a home, it is not permissible for anyone else – not even the president of the country – to break into that home or enter it without the owner’s permission except under the direst circumstances. Allah says:
O you who believe, do not enter the homes of others before announcing yourselves and greeting the occupants. This is better for you that perhaps you might take heed. And if you find no one present, then do not enter their homes until you receive permission. If you are told to go back, then go back. This is purer for you. And Allah knows well all that you do.
If entering houses without permission is forbidden, confiscating or destroying the homes of others is even more heinous. The only exception to this is where the general welfare of society rests upon doing so. In these cases, the homes can be taken as long as fair compensation is given to the owners.
There are many instances where the general welfare might require the acquisition of others’ homes. It might be necessary to complete such projects as expanding a mosque, constructing a needed road, or building a hospital. `Umar b. al-Khattâb (may Allah be pleased with him) displaced the people of Najrân and compensated them with the city of Kufah.
To protect the sanctity of the home, Islam prohibits spying. Allah says:
Do not spy, and do not backbite one another.
Spying violates the rights of others by violating the sanctity of the home and compromising the inhabitants’ personal freedom. Islam goes so far in preserving the sanctity of the home that it waives the right to retribution or blood money in cases where the home of another has been violated. Abû Hurayrah related that Allah’s Messenger said: “Whoever looks into the home of another without permission, then poke out his eye, and there will be no compensation for the eye.” Even though the eye of a human being is sacred and the monetary damages that Islam demands from one who damages the eyes of another are great, they are waived in this case where the eyes were used to violate the righs of another.”
D. Freedom of Ownership: Possession is where a person is able to dispose of something and benefit from it in any legally sanctioned manner. There are various types of property and various legitimate ways of acquiring it, all of which can be summarized as follows:
1. Types of property: Property or possession is of two types, private and public. Private property is where an individual has something and has the exclusive right to benefit from it.
Islam grants the individual the right to possess. It is a fundamental principle of Islamic Economics. It acknowledges the natural consequences of private ownership, like the need to preserve it and safeguard it from seizure, theft, and misappropriation. Islam sets stern punishments for transgressing against another’s property in order to safeguard the right to private property.
There are other consequences of private ownership that Islam addresses, like the freedom to dispose of one’s property through buying, selling, leasing, mortgaging, gifting, bequeathing, and other types of legitimate commercial behavior.
Islam, however, does not leave private ownership completely unregulated. It sets down a number of regulations to ensure that the rights of others are not violated. Islam prohibits usury, fraud, bribery, hoarding, and other harmful practices.
The freedom to own property is the same for men and women. Allah says:
Men have a share in what they earn and women have a share in what they earn.
As for public property, it is possessed by society at large, or by a sector of society. All the people in society benefit from it collectively. No individual has an exclusive right to any part of it.
This type of property includes mosques, hospitals, public roads, rivers, oceans, and the public treasury. Public property is used for the public benefit. It is not to be used for the benefit of political leaders or other individuals. No one should interfere with it without a legally valid reason, like managing the property and employing it for the common good.
2. Means of acquiring property:
The legitimate means of acquiring property are those that are specifically recognized by Islamic Law. All other ways of acquiring property are forbidden. The legitimate means of acquisition can be broken down into two categories: private and public.
Private acquisition can occur in two different situations. The first is where the wealth concerned is already the property another. The second is where it is not. Wealth that is the property of another cannot be transferred from its owner to another except for a legitimate reason. These reasons include the transfer of property due to inheritance, bequests, preemption, contractual obligation, or a gift.
Wealth that has never been the property of another cannot become someone’s property except through activity that leads to possession. This would include developing barren land, hunting wild game, extracting mineral wealth from the Earth, and being allotted unowned wealth by way of a government charter.
Personal ownership is also subject to the following conditions:
1. The owner must continue to use the property productively. Neglecting the property is harmful even to the owner and using it productively is beneficial to all of society.
2. The owner must pay the necessary Zakâh tax. If the person possesses a certain amount of wealth, it may be subject to the Zakâh tax. Zakâh is considered spending in the cause of Allah, but it is also considered a right of the wealth itself.
3. The owner must avoid all prohibited means of acquiring wealth, like interest, fraud, and cornering the market through hoarding.
4. The owner should not squander the wealth nor be excessively stingy with it.
Public acquisition of wealth manifests itself in many ways. The first of these are the natural resources that are readily available to everyone without much effort, like water, public pastureland, and fire.
The second of these are resources that are protected and maintained by the state for the general benefit. This includes such things as graveyards, military bases, government agencies, public endowments, and Zakâh funds.
Then there are those resources not owned by anyone and resources that were previously owned then fell under a long period of neglect, like undeveloped land.
Finally there are those resources acquired by the state through military effort, like the spoils of war.
E. Freedom of Work: Working is an Islamically permissible way of making a living. It holds a high honor among the various activities of life. Islam recognizes the individual’s right to engage in any field of work he or she wishes unless this leads to a conflict of interests or causes detriment to society.
Due to the importance of work in Islam, it is considered a form of struggle (jihad) in the cause of Allah. Ka`b b. `Ajazah (may Allah be pleased with him) relates that a man passed the Prophet (peace be upon him) and the Companions saw how hard working and industrious he was. They said: “O Messenger of Allah, if he were only doing this much work for the sake of Allah…”
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “If he is working to support his small children, then it is for the sake of Allah. If he is working to support his elderly parents, then it is for the sake of Allah. If he is working to occupy himself and keep his desires in check, then it is for the sake of Allah. If, on the other hand, he is doing so to show off and earn fame, then he is working for the sake of Satan.”
We find in the Qur’ân and Sunnah many texts that speak about work and praise a number of occupations, like metalworking, shipbuilding, and agriculture. The reason for this is that work, in and of itself, is a means of survival. Survival, in turn, is a necessary condition for the greatest purpose in life – worshipping Allah and seeking His pleasure. The greatness of this objective elevates the means needed to attain it.
The greatest objective is the pleasure of Allah, and work and sacrifice are the greatest means of attaining it. The Qur’ân praises work and earning a livelihood only to show the great benefits that it brings, its importance for human survival, and that it is Allah’s greatest blessing for humanity.
Individual Freedom with Reference to Abstract Concerns
A. Freedom of Belief: The individual has a right to choose the religion that he or she is convinced is true without being compelled by anyone. Compulsion negates free will, so a person who is compelled is not truly convinced. If we consider Allah’s words “There is no compulsion in religion”, ...we find that Islam has completely rejected the use of force in matters of belief. Islam asserts that thoughts and beliefs must develop in complete freedom. When a person accepts a religion, creed, or idea under compulsion or threat, then such an acceptance is false, worthless, and rejected. It is not in that person’s heart. There is no conviction behind it. For this reason, Allah says:
- If your Lord had willed, then everyone on Earth would have believed. Would you compel the people in order to make them believers?
- So remind them (O Muhammad), you are only one who reminds. You are not a dictator over them.
These verses and others like them reject the use of compulsion in matters of belief and assert the individual’s right to choose what to believe and what religion to embrace.
It follows from freedom of belief that there must be dialogue and discussion about religious matters. There must be an exchange of ideas and the opportunity to clarify matters that are ambiguous or poorly understood. This is so that belief can be attained with conviction and peace of mind and so that someone who does not know the truth can have a chance to arrive at it.
The Prophets and Messengers (peace be upon him) used to try to convince their people by engaging in discussions with them. Abraham (peace be upon him) engaged his Lord in discussion on the issue of death and resurrection in order to increase his conviction. Allah relates it in the Qur’ân as follows:
And when Abraham said: “My Lord, show me how you bring the dead to life.” He (Allah) said: “Do you not believe?” He said: “Yes, but (I ask) for the contentment of my heart.” He (Allah) said: “Take four birds and train them to come to you, then place a portion of them on every mountain. Then call them. They will come to you swiftly.” Then when it became clear to him, he said: “I know that Allah is Mighty, Wise.”
The angel Gabriel (peace be upon him) came to Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) and asked him about Islam, faith, piety, and the signs of the Hour. This is a clear proof for Islam’s insistence upon free discussion in religious matters, both between the Muslims themselves as well as between Muslims and the adherents of other faiths.
The condition for such discussions is the sincere desire to arrive at the truth and to accept the truth when it becomes clear. The purpose of discussion must not be to present false and confusing arguments or to spread doubts. Such discussions are forbidden, because they do not help people to arrive at the truth with certainty and conviction.
It also follows from freedom of belief that there must be freedom of religious practice. A person must be allowed to carry out his or her religious duties without being rebuked, belittled, or threatened. The position that Islam has given to Non-Muslims living in the Islamic State is one of the glorious facts of Islamic history and a sign of Islam’s greatness and magnanimity. When Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) arrived in Yathrib (now known as Madinah) he gave the Jews a treaty of peace.
It afforded them the right to believe and worship according to their own religion and in their own places of worship. The Rightly Guided Caliphs who succeeded him followed the same practice. `Umar b. al-Khattâb (may Allah be pleased with him) sent to the people of Jerusalem a treaty with the following wording:
This is what `Umar, the Commander of the Faithful, grants to the people of Iliyâ’ in peace. He grants them the safety of their persons, their churches, and their crosses… their churches will not be shut down nor destroyed. Nothing will be taken from them nor from their crosses. They will not be compelled to abandon their faith nor shall they any one of them be abused.
The scholars of Europe today bear witness to the magnanimity of Islam and admit this in their books.
Michaud, in his book The History of the Crusades, writes:
Islam, that commands jihâd, is magnanimous to the followers of other faiths. It exempted the patriarchs, monks, and their servants from taxation and prohibited the killing of monks specifically, because of their devoting their lives to worship. `Umar b. al-Khattâb did not harm the Christians in any way when he opened up Jerusalem. The Crusaders slaughtered the Muslims and burnt down their homes when they entered that city.
B. Freedom of Opinion: Freedom of opinion or freedom of thought is protected by Islam. Islam permits the individual to look into Creation and observe all the phenomena that it contains. It encourages the individual to experiment, employ reason, and utilize the world around him for the benefit of humanity, because everything in Creation is there for the benefit of the human being. The human being is capable of utilizing nature to his own benefit, transforming it and manipulating it to the maximum possible extent. This can only be achieved with a considerable amount of thought and contemplation.
Advancing ones opinion can be done in many circumstances and for many reasons:
1. It can be done to clarify the truth and counteract falsehood. Allah says:
Let there arise from you a group of people who call to goodness, enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong. These are the ones who are successful.
In this verse, Allah is asking the believers to make the truth – that which is right – manifest and also to refute falsehood.
2. It can be done to prevent oppression and establish justice. This is what the Prophets and Messengers did when they confronted the kings and leaders. Scholars and intellectuals do so when they confront the rulers and judges. Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “The best struggle (jihad) is to speak the truth in front of an unjust king.”
3. A person may advance his or her opinion to clarify which affairs are more important and should be dealt with first. The members of the consultative councils in many countries and societies often do this.
Freedom of opinion can manifest itself in countless other ways, but this freedom is granted by Islam only to foster good and to allow the individual to develop his or her self and society. It is not there so a person can injure himself and others or follow his lusts and destructive desires.
When we look into Islamic history, we find that freedom of opinion was put into practice since the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him).
We can see that the Companion Habbâb b. al-Mundhir gave his personal opinion about where the Muslims should position themselves during the Battle of Badr. His opinion on this matter ran contrary to the opinion of the Prophet (peace be upon him). The Prophet (peace be upon him) accepted his opinion.
When the Prophet’s wife `A’ishah was accused of adultery, some of the Companions advised him to divorce her. Then the Qur’ân testified to her innocence. There are many other examples in history where the Companions freely gave their opinions to Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him).
C. Freedom of Education: Islam requires the individual to seek knowledge and has granted every individual the right to seek an education. It has placed no restrictions on this, as long as the knowledge sought is of benefit to the Muslims in their worldly lives or their religion. Quite the contrary, Islam encourages people to seek all such knowledge.
As for knowledge that yields no benefit, but may even cause harm, it is forbidden for the Muslim to seek it. Magic and fortune telling fall under this category.
Knowledge and education are of great importance for life. For this reason, the very first verse of the Qur’ân to be revealed ordered the Prophet (peace be upon him) to read. Allah says:
Read in the name of your Lord Who created; Who created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is Most Generous, Who taught by way of the pen; Who taught the human being what he did not know.
Reading is the key to knowledge. This is the reason why the Prophet (peace be upon him) would pardon any prisoner of war from among the disbelievers if they would teach the children of Madinah how to read and write. This was after the Muslims had to emigrate to Madinah fleeing persecution, and after the unbelievers subsequently went to war against them.
One of the great qualities of Islam is that it opens up the doors of knowledge for humanity and encouraged the people to walk through them and progress as far as possible. Islam hates the neglect of knowledge and backwardness. For this reason, it is the responsibility of the Islamic State to provide all of its people with educational opportunities and to guarantee everyone their right to an education. This right must be guaranteed to everyone in the country, just like any other right.
D. Political Freedom: This refers to the freedom of the people to choose and elect their political leadership, as well as their right to monitor and criticize the performance of that leadership and to remove that leadership whenever they deviate from the Law of Allah and turn away from justice.
Likewise, it is the right of the individual to participate in carrying out the responsibilities of the government, because political authority is a collective right of the citizenry. It is not the exclusive privilege of any individual or group of people. The selection of the political leadership might occur as a result of appointment or the consultation of the people of knowledge and distinction who represent the public in a number of affairs. Among these affairs is that of making juristic decisions on issues that are not addressed by the sacred text. The political leadership must refer to the experts on matters like these. In the same way, the leadership must refer to such people in matters of serious general importance, like declaring war, making peace, concluding a treaty, establishing diplomatic ties, drafting a budget, and granting public assistance to certain sectors of the population. Allah says:
Verily Allah commands you to render trusts back to their owners and if you judge between people that you judge justly.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Religion is sincerity.” His Companions asked: “To whom, O Messenger of Allah?” He replied: “To Allah’s Messenger, the leaders of the Muslims, and the masses.”
Equality
Equality is defined as two things being similar in value and consideration. When we say that the human being is equal to his or her fellow human being, we mean that they all share the same human worth and have the same rights and responsibilities.
Equality is a very important general principle for human life. It is acknowledged by Islamic Law and is in harmony with sound reason. It is needed for the proper functioning of society.
In order to prevent discrimination between people in fulfilling their needs, it is necessary for there to be some principle to safeguard the rights that are shared by all. Ths principle is that of equality. It is the only principle that secures for everybody his or her rights.
Manifestations of equality:
A. Equality in human worth:
When Islam arrived in the world, it found the people were different in their physical qualities and their upbringings. They were differentiated by affiliation and by lineage. They waged war against each other over territory and out of bigotry and tribalism. They forgot that they all shared a common origin. The Brahmans of India claimed that humans were unequal in human worth.
The Greeks used to believe that they were a preferred people, better than all others. They believed that they were not created from the same elements that other people, whom they called Berbers, were created from.
The Romans recorded in their books that Non-Romans did not share any of the rights enjoyed by Romans and that they were all created to serve the Romans.
The Jews believed that they were Allah’s chosen people and that the Canaanites – the rest of humanity – were an inferior creation that was created to serve them.
The Arabs saw themselves as the most perfect race in every sense and considered the rest of humanity – whom they referred to as `ajam – to be inferior and deficient in their humanity.
This was the condition of the human societies that existed at that time. They invariably separated people into two classes: the nobility and the slaves.
Islam is extremely concerned with the principle of equality of human worth. It considers it a basic principle that all people must believe in as part of their faith in their Lord. Islam asserts that people are equal like the teeth of a comb with respect to their origins and human makeup. There is no difference between people in this respect, whether they be men or women, Arabs or Non-Arabs, black or white, master or slave, rich or poor. All people come from the same origin. They are all the descendants of Adam and Adam was from dust.
This type of equality is extolled by the Qur’ân. Allah says:
We have honored the children of Adam and carried them over land and sea and provided them from the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created.
This honor applies to all humanity.
Humanity as a whole is honored by Allah. All people, without exception, are regarded as members of humanity. Islam does not permit society to establish a caste system. It also does not permit any group of people claming superiority over another on an arbitrary basis like color, special origins, environment, or prestige. Islam rejects all pretenses that allow someone to take a position of superiority over another. Allah says:
O mankind, fear your Lord who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and spread forth from them both many men and women.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “People are equal like the teeth of a comb.”
One day, the Prophet (peace be upon him) heard Abû Dharr al-Ghifârî who was an Arab insult Bilâl b. Rabâh who was an Ethiopian by saying to him: “O son of a black woman.”
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) became very angry and rebuked Abû Dharr saying: “You are a man with the habits of the time of ignorance. The child of a white woman has no preference over the child of a black woman. The only preference is by piety or good deeds.”
At this point Abû Dharr placed his cheek on the ground and swore an oath that Bilâl should place his foot on his cheek until Allah forgives his mistake and pardons his ignorant action.
The question remains: Does equality in human worth negate the idea that some people are better than others?
The answer is that there can be no preference of one person over another – or of one group of people over another – on the basis of origins, physical makeup, or lineage.
In fact, on the level of human worth, Adam (peace be upon him) – who was the first human being on the face of the Earth – is equal to the last human being to live in the future. There can be no preference based on factors that people have no control over, like physical appearance.
Preference can only be achieved in matters that a person is capable of achieving, like performing good deeds, abstaining from evil, believing in Allah, performing prayers, paying the Zakâh tax, fasting, and performing the Hajj pilgrimage. These deeds fall within human capabilities, and everyone can perform them in the best possible manner. In this way, one person can be better than another. Allah says:
O mankind, verily We created you from a male and a female and made you nations and tribes so you could come to know one another. Verily the noblest of you with Allah is the most pious.
In this way, the Muslim is better than the disbeliever, because the Muslim performs the acts of piety that are wanted by Allah. Allah says:
Or should We make those who believe and perform righteous deeds like those who wreck havoc in the Earth or make the believers like the disbelievers?
The preference of some people over others on account of their deeds even exists between Muslims. Allah says:
Those among you who spent and fought before the victory are not the same as those who (only) spent and fought afterwards - they are higher in rank.
This type of inequality extends to the Prophets and Messengers. Some were better than others and enjoyed a higher status. Allah says:
Those Messengers, We preferred some of them to others. Allah spoke to some of them directly and some of them he raised in status.
The preference of some Prophets over others was not due to their physical makeup or human worth. It was instead on account of the noble deeds that they performed and the Message that they had to carry. A Prophet who was sent only to his people is not the same as one who was sent to all humanity.
Someone might ask: How can there be equality between people when people were created as different nations and ethnic groups having different languages and colors?
The answer is that though these differences exist in the world, Islamic Law does not recognize them. Such diversity in form and appearance only serves to show the great power of the Creator Who does with His Creation what He pleases. These differences do not exist to justify divisiveness, hatred and animosity. Allah mentions the wisdom behind these differences in the same verse in which He mentions them. Allah says:
O you who believe, verily We created you from a male and a female and made you nations and tribes so you could come to know one another. Verily the noblest of you with Allah is the most pious.
The reason for such physical differences exist so people can “come to know one another.” They must work together for their common human interests. They must all strive to worship their Lord and Creator. They must work to further their own interests and the interests of humanity as a whole. They must develop and uplift human society, and bring forth the gifts of civilization and culture.
B. Equality before the law: Allah alone creates and He alone sets down the Law. He sets down the firmest principles for ensuring human equality before His Law. In this way, He makes it impossible for any individual or group of people to claim superiority over others and use their position to set down whatever laws suit their interests, no matter how detrimental those laws might be. Allah alone has the right to legislate, just like He alone brings forth the Creation. Allah says:
- The decree is with Allah alone. He commands you not to worship anyone but Him.
- And judge between them with what Allah has revealed and follow not their vain desires, and beware lest they turn you away from some of what Allah has revealed to you.
Allah alone sets down the Law, since the intent of the Law is to achieve truth and justice. It must not bend to vested interests and vain desires. No matter what laws are established by human beings, they will never be able to completely correct and just at all times. They might achieve justice on occasion, but fail to do so at other times. The reason for this is that vested interests always play a part in their formulation. They must always suffer from deficiencies and limitations. This is why history is replete with all kinds of oppression on account of man-made laws.
How does Islamic Law achieve equality? Islamic Law addresses all humanity in general terms. It applies to the rulers and the ruled alike. It applies to all men and women. It enjoins upon all people to carry out its commandments, like performing prayer, paying alms, fasting, and embarking on the Hajj pilgrimage. The governors are not exempted from prayer any more than the governed are.
The same can be said for the prohibitions. Theft, adultery, and false accusation are forbidden for everyone. There are no exceptions to this. This is what equality before the law means.
C. Equality before the courts:
The Islamic judicial system is based upon the Divine Law. Just as people are equal before the Law itself, they are equal when it comes to the way the Law is carried out. The judge is equal to the one being judged. The rulers and the subjects are equal before the courts. No one is beyond the reach of the courts. Equality before the courts has been the practice since the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him) and the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
`Â’ishah relates that the tribe of Quraysh was very upset about the case of a woman from the Makhzûm clan who had committed theft. They sought out someone who would intercede on her behalf before Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him). And who would have more courage to do so than Usâmah b. Zayd, who was very dear to Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him)? Usamah went to him and spoke on her behalf. Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Would you intercede in a punishment prescribed by Allah?” He then went and addressed the public saying: “O people! Those who came before you came to ruin only because whenever a noble committed theft, they would pardon him, but whenever a weak person did so, they would carry out the punishment. By Allah, if Fâtimah, the daughter of Muhammad, committed theft, I would cut off her hand.”
D. Equality between the Muslims and non-Muslims living in the Muslim lands: Christians, Jews, and people of other faiths who live in Muslim lands have rights due to them from the Muslims. The contract that they have with the Muslim state allows them to reside permanently within it. It also guarantees the protection of their lives, wealth, and honor. They are protected from external threats as well as from abuse from other members of society. In lieu of this, they must pay a specific tax.
Islam has established for them equal rights with the Muslims. They enjoy the same rights and share the same responsibilities.
They are however, exempted from legislation of a purely religious nature. For instance, they cannot be punished for activities that their religious beliefs do not condemn and they cannot be subpoenaed to court on the date of one of their religious holidays.
There are many texts that attest to the equality between Muslims and Non-Muslims. The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Whoever oppresses, abuses,or overburdens one who has a covenant with us or forcibly removes something from his possession, then we will testify against him on the Day of Resurrection.”
A Jew had a dispute with `Alî (may Allah be pleased with him) and both of them came before `Umar. `Umar ordered `Ali to take his place beside the Jew, saying: “Stand, O father of Hasan.” `Alî’s expression became angry, so `Umar asked him: “Do you dislike it that we have placed you on an equal standing with your disputant in a court of law?” `Alî responded: “No, but I dislike it that you have shown me excessive honor and addressed me in an overly respectful manner.”
There are many ways that equality between Muslims and non-Muslims manifests itself:
1. Equal access to public funds: There is agreement among Islamic scholars that Non-Muslims living in Muslim lands have the same rights that Muslims have with respect to public funds. They are entitled to funds, just like Muslims are, when they become elderly or if they are incapacitated or otherwise unable to find gainful employment. Abû `Ubayd relates from Sa`îd b. al-Musayyib that Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) gave charity to a Jewish household and they became regular recipients of charity from then on.
The Caliph `Umar b. `Abd al-`Azîz wrote to his appointee in Basrah, `Adî b. Artâh, saying: “Look for the elderly, the weak, and the unemployed among the non-Muslim inhabitants and give them from the public funds of the Muslims what will sustain them.” This is the way in which Islam guarantees the rights of all the people in an Islamic state without discrimination. It provides for the non-Muslims to the same degree that it provides for the Muslims.
2. Equal access to employment: A non-Muslim may be employed in an Islamic state in any executive government post, like general comptroller, chief engineer, postmaster general, or even higher posts. The only exceptions to this are posts directly related to the Muslim’s religious affairs. Such posts are reserved for Muslims, because otherwise the integrity of the Islamic state would be compromised.
The fact that non-Muslims may be appointed to high government posts in the Islamic state is a clear proof that equality exists in Islam and that Muslims have actually put it into practice. Many Western writers have testified to this noble quality of Islam. Metz writes: “It is amazing the large number of non-Muslim employees and administrators in the Islamic state.”
Another writer says: “In reality, the Jews and Christians were not only granted religious freedom, but were appointed to government posts whenever their qualifications were noticed by the rulers.”
3. Equal imposition of the land tax: The land tax is imposed upon land acquired by the Islamic state during war. This land is retained by its original inhabitants, but has a fixed tax levied upon it annually. This revenue is placed in the public treasury. Both Muslim and non-Muslim occupants of the land are required to pay this tax. This tax is levied on the land itself, not on its inhabitants, so it is not waived if the possessor of the land accepts Islam or if a Muslim acquires ownership of it.
Brotherhood
It is unnatural for people on this planet to live in isolation. It is irrational and illogical for people to perpetually avoid each other or fight with each other. Allah created all people from one source. All of them were created from Adam and Eve. All people, black or white, Arab or non-Arab, rich or poor, are their descendants. The most unnatural idea of all is that Allah would create all people from one common source and yet their ultimate destinies and purposes would be completely different.
For this reason, Islam has taken every necessary measure to preserve humanity from division and discord. One of these measures is the principle of brotherhood. (No sexual bias is here intended.) This principle wipes away all the difference that exist between people, like lineage, wealth, and all other qualities that people use to distinguish themselves above one another.
What, then, is this thing called brotherhood? On what is it based? What are its benefits? How does Islam bring it about? These are the questions that will be addressed in the following paragraphs.
If we look carefully into the literal meaning of brotherhood and its Islamic usage, we find that brotherhood is of three types:
A. Brotherhood can be based on biological relatedness. This is the meaning of brotherhood with respect to the laws of inheritance. In this context, Allah says:
And each of his parents have a sixth of what he left if he had a child. If he did not have a child, and his parents are his only heirs, then his mother receives a third. If he has brothers, then his mother receives a sixth.
B. Brotherhood exists between all people on account of their common humanity. This is the brotherhood between all the descendants of Adam. Allah says:
We have honored the children of Adam and have carried them over land and sea and have provided for them good things and have preferred them over much of what We have created.
Ibn Kathîr says in his commentary on the Qur’ân: “This verse is used as proof that humanity is preferable as a race to the race of angels.” Allah says:
O mankind, verily We created you from a male and a female and made you nations and tribes so you could come to know one another.
This refers to all of humanity: believers and disbelievers, people of lineage and those without, close relatives and distant ones.
C. Brotherhood can be based on belief and religious identity. This is the meaning intended when speaking about faith and other related topics. Allah says:
- The believers are but brothers.
- And He has brought their hearts together. If you had spent all that was in the Earth, you would not have brought their hearts together.
This verse means that they became brothers by virtue of their Islam and loved one another and were united through the greatness of Allah, so they cooperated in acts of righteousness and piety.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “A Muslim is the brother of another Muslim, so he should not oppress him, forsake him, or despise him.”
These are but a few of the Qur’anic verses and hadîth that talk about this kind of brotherhood.
Why did Islam establish brotherhood on the basis of faith and not on the basis of relationship or race?
The reason why Islam did not build its concept of brotherhood on blood relationship or race is because these two things have their basis in material considerations. Consequently, they cannot bring about a strong and united community that can resist the disagreements and conflicts that might tear it apart. This is especially true if the differences are ideological in nature or are based on beliefs and methodology. It has repeatedly been seen that blood brothers can be brought to kill one another when their beliefs or interests differ. In contrast, people who share the same faith or belief system can work together even though they come from different countries, speak different languages, or have different racial backgrounds.
For this reason, Islam establishes human brotherhood on the basis of faith, since faith is a strong bond that takes control of the soul and the inner self, making them respond to its voice. Moreover, this bond is not limited by race or nationality. It is not confined to any geographical area. It transcends all of these limitations. It extends to the ends of the Earth. It seeks to bring about a worldwide human society united by brotherhood and love.
The Building Blocks of Islamic Brotherhood
A structure without support must collapse. Likewise, Islamic brotherhood will fall apart if it loses the basis upon which it rests and which gives it support and stability. If we were to try to enumerate all the building blocks upon which Islamic brotherhood rests, we would not be able to do so, because they are so numerous. Yet we may summarize them briefly in the following manner:
A. Love and loyalty: It is not possible for brotherhood to come about unless the Muslims have genuine love for one another. This love must be deep and abiding. It must translate into deeds. A Muslim must greet another Muslim with peace when he sees him, and he must assist him when he is in need. He must show him hospitality when he receives him as a guest. He must help him to attain what is good and keep away from harm. Due to his sincere love for his brother, he must consider him to be as important as himself, if not more important.
From the Qur’ân, we have a good example of this love. Allah describes the Ansâr, who were the Muslims of Madinah, when the Meccan Muslims came to them as emigrants. He says:
But those who from before had homes and had faith love those who had emigrated to them, and they find in their hearts no desire for what they have been given and prefer others above themselves, even though poverty may afflict them.
`Abd al-Rahmân b. `Awf relates the following: “When we came to Madinah, Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) made a bond of brotherhood between me and Sa`d b. al-Rabî’. Sa`d said to me: ‘My brother, I am the wealthiest man in Madinah, so look at my wealth and take half of it. I have two wives. Look to see which one pleases you, so I may divorce her’.” What love could be greater than this, where your brother divorces his wife so you can get married? And what kind of brother gives to you half his wealth, the product of his life’s work?
B. Patience and toleration of abuse: A believer must bear patiently the harshness and rude treatment that he finds in his brothers. He must be able to take the bad treatment that they mete out to him in both word and deed. He must do this for the sake of preserving the bond of brotherhood. If he were to react and take revenge every time he was ill treated, the conflicts might never end, especially if the one seeking revenge is weaker than the one who wronged him. This would place people in a state of perpetual violence, an evil that far outweighs the benefit of taking revenge. Allah says:
And good deeds and evil deeds are not equal. Repel evil with what is best, then he with whom you had enmity shall become as a loyal friend. And none shall attain it except those who are patient, and none shall attain it except those endowed with great good fortune.
C. Concealing the faults of others: A believer must conceal the faults of his brother, no matter how great those faults might be, as long as his brother is not open about them. He must do so to protect the dignity of his brother and keep him from falling into public disgrace. Allah says:
Indeed, those who love that obscenity should be spread among the believers shall have a painful chastisement in this life and in the Hereafter, and Allah knows and you know not.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “A slave does not conceal the faults of another in this world except that Allah conceals his faults on the Day of Resurrection.”
There is wisdom behind Islam’s prohibition of making public the faults of others. Islam goes so far as to consider publicizing the faults of another a great crime in and of itself. There are two reasons for this.
The first reason is that concealing the mistake of another gives that person a chance to reevaluate himself and repent. If his misdeed became manifest, he might lose all shame and, because of his infamy, continue to do his evil deed. On the other hand, if his shameful deed remains hidden, he will still have his reputation to protect. For this reason, Islam advises against exposing the faults of others. Mu`âwiyah relates that he heard Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) say: “If you seek after the shameful deeds of others, you will bring them to ruin or almost do so.”
`Uqbah b. Amir relates that Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Whoever sees someone else’s shame and conceals it is like a person who rescued a newborn girl from being buried alive.”
The second reason why it is better to conceal the faults of others is that it keeps corrupt deeds from becoming widespread in society. When sinful deeds are made public and then go unpunished, society can become corrupted, because people will be encouraged to behave in the same way. Making such sins public only brings these deeds to people’s attention and teaches them to engage in similar behavior. Many sinners confess that what brought them to sin was what they heard from others, or what they learned from the radio or on television.
Under certain circumstances, it is obligatory to conceal the faults of others. They are as follows:
• Cases of fornication that were not witnessed by at least four people.
• Cases where the sinful act has no effect on anyone besides the perpetrator.
• Cases where making the sin public causes greater harm than concealment.
• Cases where exposing the sin causes people to lose confidence in someone who they benefit from on account of the confidence that they have in him.
• Cases where the sinner is seeking an Islamic ruling on the sin that he committed and how to atone for it.
In other cases, it is obligatory to expose the faults of another person, especially when that person is public about his sins and knows that what he is doing is against the law of Allah. This person needs to be punished to prevent his sinful behavior from spreading to others in society.
The bond of brotherhood in Islam is different than other bonds that exist between people. It has a far deeper effect on the nature of society than any other bond, like that of language, national identity, or common interests. Such bonds, irrespective of their apparent effects, remain superficial. They are weak and easily broken unless they are strengthened by the bond of spiritual brotherhood and shared moral values. Only in this way can many truly be united.
The positive effects of brotherhood:
Brotherhood provides a number of worldly benefits. It creates a unified society. Muslims are united by the brotherhood that they share. It brings them together. They become the way Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) described them: “The believers with each other are like a building, each part supporting the others.”
Brotherhood removes the divisive effects of social stratification. People, instead, distinguish themselves through their devotion and their efforts. They all share the same rights and responsibilities. Allah says:
Verily the noblest of you with Allah is the most pious.
The Muslims, as brothers, advise and counsel one another on the worldly and spiritual matters that concern them. This mutual concern and counsel could never take place without genuine love existing between them. They must truly desire that good befalls their brothers and that they avoid misfortune.
Brotherhood has a pronounced affect on every aspect of cultural advancement and the progress of civilization. The reason for this is that any society whose members are divided amongst themselves will fall behind other civilizations and fall into disgrace and poverty. This is the fate of a society that is devoid of brotherhood. The weakness of a people is directly proportional to the degree of division that exists among them. Such division brings them to wretchedness where they once might have enjoyed prosperity and strength.
Brotherhood provides spiritual benefits as well. It brings about Allah’s pleasure and the reward of Paradise. When a believer becomes the brother of another believer and fosters for him true affection, Allah will reward him with Paradise because he has obeyed the command of Allah.
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “You will not enter Paradise until you believe, and you will not believe until you love one another. Should I not call you to something that will bring love between you if you do it – greet each other with peace often.”
Brotherhood will be rewarded with exemption from the horrors of the Day of Resurrection. The Prophet (peace be upon him) mentioned seven classes of people that would enjoy the shade of Allah on the day that there would be no shade except for his shade. Among them are: “two men who loved each other for the sake of Allah, who met each other and departed for his sake.” This shade will save them from the intense heat of the Sun on that day, and it will be granted to brothers who loved each other on the basis of faith.
Brotherhood can bring about benefits from the prayers of the righteous, before and after one’s death. All Muslims, when they perform their prayers, make the following supplication: “Peace be upon us and all the righteous worshippers of Allah.” This supplication is general for every righteous servant in the Heavens and on Earth. Righteousness is attained by performing every good deed enjoined by Allah and by avoiding every evil deed that Allah has prohibited. Among these good deeds is to love and foster brotherhood with those who share the same goals and strive with the same good deeds.
Beauty
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Allah is beautiful and loves beauty.” Beauty here refers to the goodness of His deeds and the perfection of His attributes.
In technical terms, beauty is: the goodness, fullness, and completeness of something in every relevant quality of that thing. Thus, the beauty of a given thing lies in the goodness and completeness of the qualities inherent within it. If all possible aspects of completeness are manifest within something, then it is at its utmost beauty. If only some of these qualities are present, then its beauty is of a lesser degree, proportional to the extent of these qualities within it.
A beautiful horse is a horse that possesses all the qualities that a perfect horse should have, regarding its form, shape, color, the perfection of its limbs, and the ease of its gait. Beautiful handwriting contains all the qualities that are suitable for it, such as the balance and proper form of its letters and their correct and harmonious arrangement. Human beauty will not be for the same qualities as the beauty of an animal. Nor is the beauty of calligraphy going to be for the same qualities as the beauty of a voice. The qualities that make a dish beautiful will not be the same particular qualities as those that make an article of clothing beautiful. This can be said of all things.
Beauty is one of the most evident attributes of Allah’s Creation. Wherever a person looks, the beauty of Allah’s Creation is apparent in its colors, its sounds, and in its infinite complexity and precision. This beauty is one of the signs that Allah placed in His Creation, the Creation that He asked the human being to contemplate on and uncover its secrets. Allah says:
He is the one who sent down water from the sky. Therewith We bring forth vegetation of all kinds: from some We bring forth green crops out of which we bring forth clustered grain; And from the date palm and its spathes come clusters of dates hanging low and near. And there are gardens of grapes and olives, and pomegranates, each similar in kind yet different. When they begin to bear fruit, look at the fruits and their ripeness. Verily in these things are signs for people who believe.
This verse contains a description of the beauty to be found in nature. It calls a person to reflection and consideration. The beauty mentioned in the verse is not merely to be remembered and understood, it is mentioned so the person can take pleasure from it. The things mentioned in the verse were not created only for material benefits that they provide, but they were created to provide beauty, an immaterial benefit. Allah also says:
And He has created cattle for you, from them you derive warmth and many benefits, and of their meat you eat. And you have a sense of pride and beauty in them as you drive them home in the evening and as you lead them forth to pasture in the morning.
Allah first mentions their material benefits then follows this by mentioning the more abstract benefits that they confer, typified by the aspects of their beauty that can be appreciated by their owners as well as others.
Elements of beauty:
For something to be beautiful, it must possess the following qualities:
A. Freedom from defects: The beauty of something is evident in its freedom from defects and deficiencies. The Qur’ân turns our attention to this aspect of beauty. While speaking about how beauty manifests itself in Creation, the Qur’ân discusses the sky, saying:
Do they not look at the sky above them – how We made it and adorned it and that there are no flaws in it?
This verse proclaims the beauty of the sky and that it is free from flaws. By negating any possibility of defect in the sky, the verse emphasizes its beauty.
B. Harmony and order: This is another characteristic of beauty. It is founded in precision, proper determination, and the proper relationship of some things to others in qualities like size, shape, color, movement, and sound. The Qur’ân discusses this quality, establishing its importance as a fundamental part of Creation, applying to everything, big or small, animate or inanimate. Allah says:
It is He who created all things and gave them due proportions.
If we take a close look at the human being, we can see the symmetry that so beautifies this small creature. The following words of Allah may not only point to the physical precision, symmetry, and good proportion of the human body, but perhaps they also point to the precise harmony that exists between the human body, mind, and spirit. It may also point to the harmony between the limbs of the human body and the limbs of other things in the surrounding world. Allah says:
O mankind, what has deceived you about your generous Lord? He Who created you, fashioned you in due proportion, and gave you a balanced form. In whatever form He wills, he puts you together.
A human being cannot hope to grasp all that is beautiful in this vast universe. Sometimes it must be pointed out by way of divine revelation. The universe is way to vast for the human intellect to take it all in. Many things will pass beneath a person’s notice, not due to any deficiency or lack of beauty in the thing itself, but due to the limitations of human perception. The vast realm of purely abstract beauty testifies to this.
Much of this type of beauty would go completely unnoticed were it not for the specific mention given in the sacred texts. Though knowledge of these types of beauty is indispensable, people would have passes through the ages in utter ignorance of them. This will become clearer in the following paragraphs.
Types of beauty:
The universe consists of bodies possessing length, width, and depth – like people, animals, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth – as well as meanings like words, deeds, names, and qualities. On this basis, beauty can be broken down into two types:
A. Sensory beauty: This type of beauty comprises those things that can be ascertained by the senses. This type of beauty embraces the natural beauty of the Earth and sky, the Sun and the Moon, night and day, the land and the sea. It also comprises the beauty of the human being in the perfection of the human form. The Qur’ân brings our attention to many of the beautiful things in Creation, so we can benefit from them and thank our Lord Who brought the world around us under our control. Allah says:
- And He has created cattle for you, from them you derive warmth and many benefits, and of their meat you eat. And you have a sense of pride and beauty in them as you drive them home in the evening and as you lead them forth to pasture in the morning. And they carry your heavy loads to lands that you would otherwise not be able to reach without great distress, for your Lord is indeed Most Kind, Most Merciful. And horses, mules, and donkeys for you to ride and as a source of beauty. And he has created other things of which you have no knowledge.
- And I have created the human being in the best of forms.”
Allah explains what is meant by the “best of forms” by saying:
O mankind, what has deceived you about your generous Lord? He Who created you, fashioned you in due proportion, and gave you a balanced form. In whatever form He wills, he puts you together.
These verses show the beautiful pattern upon which the human being was created. Beauty is a hallmark of the human being, just as it is an attribute of other things. It is a great sign of the Creator’s power and creative ability, for He not only created the universe, but he did so with great precision and originality. No one can create anything like His Creation, even if the entire world came to assist in the effort.
B. Abstract beauty: This type of beauty manifests itself in many ways. It cannot be perceived by the senses directly, but can be ascertained by one who possesses a keen intellect and is insightful.
There is beauty in noble statements and in good words. Allah says:
Who is better in speech than one who calls to Allah, works righteous deeds, and says: “Truly, I am of the Muslims.”
In this verse, Allah has made calling to Islam and uttering the testimony of faith the best and most beautiful of speech. This shows that beauty exists in statements that people utter, not just in how the words are composed, but also in the meanings that they express.
There is beauty in deeds, which should always accompany good words, for words that are not followed by deeds can never attain their full beauty. This is why, in the aforementioned verse Allah says: “…works righteous deeds…”, for a statement by itself is not enough with respect to a person being a Muslim, if it is not followed by action.
This is the reason the scholars give the following beautiful definition for faith: “It is a profession on the tongue, performance of deeds, and conviction in the heart.”
It is clear that beauty exists in deeds as much as it exists in words.
Where beauty is to be found:
We have dealt with how beauty can be sensory or abstract. From this, we can ascertain where beauty can be found.
A. Beauty can be found in nature. Nature, which encompasses the heavens and the Earth, people and animals, plants and rocks, provides a vast domain for beauty. The Qur’ân draws our attention to many details of nature and many aspects of its beauty. It presents this beauty in two different ways:
It sometimes approaches the subject in general terms, drawing our attention to nature, so people can scrutinize and contemplate on the world in which they live and draw forth its secrets for themselves. Allah says:
Verily in the creation of the heavens and the Earth; in the alteration of the night and the day; in the ships that sail through the ocean carrying what benefits mankind; in the rain which Allah sends down from the skies by which He gives life to an Earth that is dead and scatters within it beasts of all kinds; in the changing of the wind; in the clouds that are suspended between the sky and the Earth – are indeed signs for people who use reason.
This great spectacle of nature that goes beyond the limits of what the senses can take in. It is something for both the senses and human reason to explore and from which they may draw forth specific conclusions, not the least of which is its manifest beauty.
The Qur’ân sometimes approaches the subject in specific terms, focusing on one aspect of nature and pointing out its beauty in both direct and subtle ways. Allah says:
Do they not look at the sky above them – how We made it and adorned it and that there are no flaws in it?
B. Beauty can be found within the human being. This beauty can be witnessed from the first stages of formation and development to the period of growth and full adulthood. Beauty is one of the most prominent characteristics of the human being. The Qur’ân discusses it in depth, using it to indicate the power and creative ability of Allah with which He blessed His servants. Allah says:
- He has created the heavens and earth in truth, and He shaped you, and He shaped you well, and to Him is the final return.
- O mankind, what has deceived you about your generous Lord? He Who created you, fashioned you in due proportion, and gave you a balanced form. In whatever form He wills, he puts you together.
The perfect and complete proportions of the human form are the source of all human beauty, because the lack of deficiency in form is a source of beauty. Allah created the human being and brought His creation to the heights of excellence and precision.
C. Beauty is to be found in the arts. The arts are a product of human effort. It stems from the intrinsic nature and the rational faculties that Allah has placed within the human being.
Islam is based upon its beliefs and provides a comprehensive view of the universe, of life, and of humanity. There is no room within it for falsehood, heresies, and corrupted ideas. There is no room within it for icons and idols. The arts are a great source of beauty and will remain so as long as human beings inhabit the Earth. Artistic beauty in Islam can manifest itself in many ways, among which are the following:
Ornamentation: The Muslims have been known for this artistic form for ages. It has even been said that the Islamic art form is the art of ornamentation. Scarcely an Islamic artifact can be found – from rings and dishes to the greatest of buildings – that does not possess some form of ornamentation.
There are two major ornamental styles:
1. The floral style: There are many approaches to this style. Flowers and plants appear singularly and in pairs. They can be placed in opposition or intertwined, and are found in all sorts of places. They adorn walls and doors. They appear in glass and in copper work. They decorate the pages and covers of books.
2. The geometric style: This style is achieved by using geometric forms in beautiful artistic arrangements. Star patterns and interlocking circles are common. This style can often be seen adorning buildings, in woodwork and copper work, and on doors and ceilings.
Calligraphy: The written word has always been an important domain of artistic beauty. It appears as poetry and prose. The written word itself has a respected status since the time Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) took scribes to record the revelation. Everything that was revealed was written down, sometimes on palm fronds, stone tablets, sheepskins, or wooden boards. It was collected together during the time of Abû Bakr when he feared that the Qur’ân would be lost due to the fact that many of the reciters of Qur’ân were being killed in war.
Writing took on a greater prominence as Caliphs, governors, poets, scholars, and orators became part of the literate classes. Writing became a social distinction and a required skill for all prominent people in society. It enjoyed wide popularity.
Calligraphy was practiced with great care by the Muslims. People became specialists in the art. Many styles developed, like Kufic, Persian, Naskh, Ruq`â, Moroccan, Diwani, and Thuluth. Each of these styles became the source for numerous subsidiary styles.
Architecture: This field is as old as humanity. It progressed as the human being progressed from generation to generation throughout the centuries. In the Islamic world, advances took place that had never existed before. It set down styles that were very functional for its purposes while providing great esthetic beauty. Architectural beauty manifested itself in two main areas:
Mosques and prayer areas: Architecture took great strides in this area and diversified greatly. The mosque took on a unique and distinctive appearance through numerous ways in which this distinctiveness manifested itself.
Residential buildings: Islam had a marked effect on how people lived and consequently on the architectural style of homes and palaces. A western scholar, G. Marseille, noticed this effect when he said: “Islam became deeply imbedded in domestic as much as it entered social life. It placed its stamp on both homes and individuals.”
A Muslim’s house is distinctive because it is intrinsically related to the social customs that Islam carefully structured and cultivated. Among the factors that Muslim houses took into consideration are the partition that separates men from women, the necessity of seeking permission from outside a house before entering it, and the necessity of seeking permission from within the house before entering a room.
Some of the old castles still exist. In Spain, there is the Alhambra of Granada. There are also many surviving examples of later castles showing great diversity of style. They can be found in all countries with a Muslim population. These homes and palaces continue to tell us about the genius and artistry of Muslim architects and the extent of their engineering knowledge.
The attention that Muslims give to their homes and palaces and to their ornamentation must remain within the limits set by Islam. Islam does not allow extravagance and wasteful spending, nor does it promote stinginess. It calls to moderation and balance.
A person must not forget in material beauty what Islam has to offer of abstract beauty that makes a person take care of the most important matters first. The beauty of a judge is in being just. The beauty of a ruler is in caring for and protecting the subjects. The beauty of a wealthy person is in charity, the beauty of a poor person is in hard work and industry. Allah says:
- O children of Adam, We have bestowed raiment upon you to cover your shame as well as to adorn you, but the raiment of righteousness, that is the best.
- O children of Adam, wear your beautiful apparel when you go to the mosque.
(The Discover Islam Project)
Saturday, May 30, 2009
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