Tuesday, December 30, 2014

An Illusion of Intellectualism

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By Mohamed Ghlian / December 22, 2013

For a book carrying the subtitle “Science and Religion in Islam,” one would reasonably expect the author to be well versed in three subjects: science, religion, and Islam. However, Taner Edis readily admits from the very beginning of “An Illusion of Harmony” that he’s no expert in Islam. He cites having grown in a Muslim land, Turkey, and how “Islamic” culture is part of his non-Muslim identity. This, in addition to his cursory reading of Islamic history as presented by the anti-Islam polemicists that he references are the bases upon which he relies for the validity of his arguments. His authority in science is derived from being a physicist, which similar to having grown in an “Islamic” culture cannot be accepted as a real form of authority in science as an enterprise. Indeed, one can be engaged in an activity without any substantial or real knowledge of what the activity is all about. The task Edis undertakes proves to be too much for him.

Not to be missed, Edis brings up Al-Ghazzali – a favorite figure pointed to as an explanation for “what happened” to the Islamic Golden Age.  Al-Ghazzali is consistently brought up for having written a “condemnation” of the “foreign sciences” such as “philosophy and mathematics.” Such a blanket statement of Al-Ghazzali’s work “The Incoherence of Philosophers” exposes the unfamiliarity of Edis with this work, as well as Al-Ghazzali’s work preceding it titled “The Objectives of Philosophers.” Al-Ghazzali was a Muslim theologian, but contrary to what Edis seems to imply by the term, Al-Ghazzali was also an academic and a philosopher in his own right. In the Islamic Tradition, being a theologian necessarily entails mastery of not just Scripture, but also of the so-called “foreign sciences.” Al-Ghazzali did not write a condemnation of philosophy and mathematics, subjects, which in his time encompassed the natural sciences, as we know them today. He wrote a treatise on where such sciences show consistency when applied in their proper realms, and incoherence when applied where they don’t belong – a fact about science, which modern science-worshipping atheists such as Edis don’t seem to comprehend or want to accept.

Edis’ misrepresentation of Al-Ghazzali, which can only be a result of his limited familiarity with him was not the only one. His knowledge of the theological positions different groups took within Islam is grossly inaccurate. For one, he presents the Mu’tazila as a rationalist sect that was subverted by an irrational popular Islamic theology. He caricatures the theological positions to an extent that renders this work of his academically unworthy of attention. Edis seems to have taken certain highlights he has come across in his cursory readings, decontextualized them from both theological and historical perspectives, and put them together in a few paragraphs to fill his pages.

Further evidence of Edis’ lack of familiarity with Islamic theology, disguised by a cursory familiarity with Islamic social history, is seen in his understanding of how medieval Muslims viewed knowledge in relation to religion. In short, Edis’ analysis is nothing more than a confabulation of science and mysticism, understood by Edis to have been interlinked, but acknowledged by Muslim theologians to be independent in their epistemology. Edis’ ignorance of this becomes clearer in his assertion that Muslims distrusted natural law and causality in favour of having everything in nature depend on an omnipotent God. This assertion is negated by a single Hadith from the Prophet Muhammad PBUH who preceded all the Muslim theologians Edis cites by hundreds of years. A man asked the Prophet Muhammad PBUH whether he should tie his camel when goes inside his home, or leave it untied and rely upon God believing it won’t flee. Prophet Muhammad PBUH’s response is one of the most famous Hadiths that Muslim children, let alone theologians, know: “tie it and rely upon God.” The Islamic belief is to acknowledge a universe where cause and effect are real. But at the same time realize that this belief in a sequence of cause and effect, which modern science can’t do without, are ultimately part of God’s omnipotence. Although Edis’ does mention, albeit passingly, the occasionalist solutions put forth by Al-Ghazzali and others, this mention doesn’t indicate more than his awareness of their presence in Islamic theology and his lack of understanding of their implications to how Muslims did science.

The Islamic conception of epistemology is an elaborate one. In his insolent remarks about Muslim scholars making all kinds of lists of classifications, Edis doesn’t realize their purpose: Muslims did not want to approach an area of knowledge with the wrong tools to acquire it. Doing so was recognized to result in confusion and never-ending mistakes in judgments. Regardless of the critiques against cause and effect, Muslims scholars dictated that the only way to know the workings of the natural world was by observation. To put it in modern terms, Muslim scholars have always recognized that the scientific method is how one can learn about the natural world. Edis misses this basic teaching that a beginner student of Islamic theology would receive because in his worldview there are no different categories of asking, “why?” For Edis, the “why?” question is always a mechanism-explanation seeking question. Hence, his understanding of Islamic theology continually proves to be problematic. Whether one accepts the validity of purpose-driven “why?” questions or not, it must be acknowledged and treated accordingly as such when reading the works of a religious tradition that categorizes “why?” questions, and puts purpose-driven “why?” questions as the ultimate ones to answer. Interestingly, Edis doesn’t completely miss this distinction. But he does dismiss it in his attempts to explain the ailments of Muslim thinking, ailments which for the most part were produced not from Muslims’ beliefs in Islam, but from Edis’ own incompetence in his dealing with Islamic theology.

In addition to Edis’ lack of academic rigour in theology, he also misrepresents history when he contrasts the Islamic civilization with Christendom. The blanket claim that Islamic Madrasas were purely dedicated to religious knowledge, whereas “sophisticated ideas” stemming from “foreign or rational” sciences were taught under an “ethos of secrecy,” that “depended on master-apprentice relationships” in Muslim lands is easily refuted by the standing structures of traditional Islamic Madrasas in Morocco and Egypt. Despite the misfortune of such places standing only as historical reminders of the past, the presence of observatories on the roof tops of mosques, and medical quarters where anatomy and surgery were taught next to the prayer areas, in addition to marked pillars where circles of philosophical discussions took place inside the prayer areas stands to completely refute Edis’ claims that Muslims have traditionally viewed extra-religious knowledge negatively. On the other hand, although philosophical discourses took place within monasteries in Christendom, it’s historically undeniable that these discussions had to be confined within the limits of what was acceptable to the Church. That’s not to say that Muslim history is void of intellectual persecution. Muslims did engage in such intellectual terrorism, but it’s non sequitur that such persecution stems from Islamic injunctions.

Edis attributes the progress of human thought to arrive at modern science was by undergoing a shift into a mechanistic thinking of the world. This way of thinking about nature gave rise to the scientific method. Nonsense. Humans have always had a mechanistic view of nature. The idea that we’ve only managed to see patterns in nature and use that knowledge for our benefit during the European Enlightenment is unsubstantiated. The “progress” we’ve experience from modern science is a result of how the tool of the scientific method is utilized today in combination with modern technological advancements. Although it was primitive in form during human history, the scientific method’s purpose was to understand nature. The shift humans have undergone that led to modern science was to use the scientific method to subject and manipulate nature as opposed to understand its workings.

Throughout the book, Edis continually scoffs at the Islamic, and generally religious, perspective of the world having a purpose, harmony, and overall design. A favourite target of Edis who he kept bringing up until near the very end of the book was Badiüzzaman Said Nursî and the movement that followed him. Whether it was Nursî or Seyyed Hossein Nasr or Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani or the numerous Turkish theologians and Muslim thinkers Edis cites throughout his book, there was not a single instance of him supporting his case against Islam by going directly to primary Islamic sources and then giving an academic breakdown of how different scholars have utilized them as evidence in support of their arguments. Edis gathered random decontexualized quotes of statements made by Muslims attempting to revive their co-religionists into doing science again under an Islamic vision that puts Creation under the Creator. He then ridiculed such a perspective assuming that the naturalistic materialism he subscribes to is the “rational” one, and in the fashion of New Atheists moved on to the next point he had to make.

In spite of the innumerable problems, logical fallacies, and even inaccuracies (such as the one about ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattāb burning books in Egypt after conquering it), Edis does come close to getting one thing right. Medieval Muslims did do a different kind of science. Contrary to Edis’ claims, medieval Muslim science was a science that relied upon use of the scientific method, fact collecting, and hypothesizing based on observation, then testing the validity of these hypotheses through experimentation in order to finally come up with coherent theories. Their concern was practicality and technological advancement, as well as understanding how things worked. The only difference was how they fit their findings into their theistic worldview. Their belief in cause and effect being part of God’s omnipotence meant that they never saw anything as random, and therefore they viewed everything in nature to have significance. Modern scientists such as Edis operate on the notion that nothing has purpose or meaning. Hence, if an unexpected result comes forth from an experiment, or the standard error bars never disappear, it’s always chalked up to meaninglessness anomalies. However, as Thomas Kuhn would put it, these so-called “anomalies” eventually pile up and force the scientific establishment to re-examine their theories, which eventually leads to a Scientific Revolution. This is usually talked about as a positive for modern science – it’s the scientific method prevailing. In reality, it’s a negative externality of the belief about the nature of the universe having no meaning, no purpose and no ultimate omnipotent Creator who brought it all into existence. It’s anti-progress and anti-scientific. Instead of wasting all that time until enough “anomalies” pile up to force the scientific community to re-examine its theories, science could’ve moved much farther ahead under an Islamic worldview. It’s a worldview where the physical universe is investigated using physical means in order to serve the metaphysical. The real problem modern Muslims have today is in their attempts at having the metaphysical serve the physical universe by using metaphysical explanations of what are ultimately physical mechanisms. Medieval Muslims never approached science this way. Hence, their harmony between religion and science and the illusion of such a harmony with the approach of modern Muslims.

Overall, “An Illusion of Harmony” was a very difficult read. The sheer number of basic mistakes Edis makes with regards to the Islamic Tradition was exhausting to keep track of. It is ironic that throughout the book he constantly accuses Muslims of being opportunists who collect random scientific facts and present them in support of their Islamic worldview without paying much attention to coherence. That might be the case of some Muslims who haven’t mastered their Tradition before delving into discussing science. However, that says nothing about Islam. “An Illusion of Harmony” is a striking example of superficial and opportunistic literature, sensationalized by decontextualizing Muslim history, supported by half quotes and soundbites from Muslim thinkers, and completely void of any solid understanding of science, religion, or Islam.


http://mohamedghilan.com/2013/12/22/an-illusion-of-intellectualism/

Thursday, November 27, 2014

Modern Nation States, the Islamic Caliphate and Ummah: Are they compatible?

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By Muhammad ibn Kateb Al-Ashari
Contents
Background
Modern nation states and it’s concepts 2
The concept of Caliphate and Ummah in Islam
Caliphate and it’s conditions 3
Ummah it’s meaning and it’s duty 5
The duty of the Islamic political parties 6
Conclusion 6
End Notes 8
Bismillah Ar-Rahman Ar-Raheem
Background
Today wold is just a compilation of some nation states where many different races and ethnicities reside. The days of empires have ended and so does the days of kings and emperors who ruled over vast regions in the past. In that past time existed the Islamic system of governance : the Caliphate. So the question asked “is caliphate and it’s subject (Muslim nation) compatible with today’s “nation states””? Muslim is the only people who are recognized by their religion as a nation, not by their race or language or culture. The concept of nationalism as stated below is not similar to the concept of Muslim nationalism if at all there is anything as Muslim nationalism, because Muslims are a nation (ummah) whose peace and security ought to be one. My position in this paper is “the concept of Caliphate and ummah is compatible with nation states today if certain conditions are fulfilled”. This is to me is Islamic nationalism and reality which is to be of Muslim nation states. Do consider the difference between Muslim nation and Muslim states. If I use Muslim nation states I mean Muslim nations otherwise it should be understood as the ummah (Muslim nation)
According to contemporary Western definition the nation state is a state that self-identifies as deriving its political legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial uniti. The characteristics of a nation state is fourii. If these four are found then it can be said that a nation state exists. The four traits are: a) A permanent population b) A defined territory c) Government d) The ability to enter into relation with other states. These conditions are sometimes not fully seen such as Somalia as an example where there is no effective government, but nonetheless a state. The most important thing for a state is sovereignty, what makes it independent from others in sense of legal jurisdiction on it’s territory. However in federal states there are sovereign states with in state such as in USA or Canada but these internal states somewhat sovereign are not treated as states due to the fact that they are not sovereign to enter in to treaties. This is what the concept is to the western academics and certain legal bodiesiii.
The origins and early history of nation states are disputed. Romano identifies the French Revolution as the source of modern European nationalism. Fired by patriotic fervor as they swept across the continent, French revolutionary armies, followed by those of Napoleon, stirred nationalist backlashes everywhere in Europeiv. To know fully why nation state is different from empires one should ask what nationalism is. One is the primordialist perspective that describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient and perceived evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct grouping based on an affinity of birthv. So It can be a nationalistic (Nation building as well) belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic, cultural, religious, or identity groupvi. In this sense the rise of nation states can be ascribed to ethnic and racial reasons among others, otherwise how can it be different from an empire?
Islam does not define the concept of state as a definition we would ask to find in it’s sources but we can say that Islam recognizes the concepts of territories, rulers, population and laws. It is very common in Islamic texts and Islamic jurisprudence that such terms have been mentioned to address legal, foreign trade and warfare issues among others. Such elements are both common to empires and nation states but even then there are differences. For example in Europe marriage among royals would sometimes result in land swap which is not the case for nation states. The way Islam has dealt with elements of empires or nation states are that “A ruler ruling over it’s subjects in a land which has a delimiter and who trades with foreign rulers”. This is what I can say about how Islam has looked at the elements of empires or nation states. Hence the basis of race or ethnicity does not play a role in determining the concept of state in Islam, however a specific part of a specific race does play an important role in one important aspect as we shall see later.
The concept of Caliphate and Ummah in Islam
The meaning of the term caliphate from (khaleefa) is to interchange the predecessor and take his positionvii. In this sense man is khaleefa on earth of it’s previous inhabitants who were the jinnsviii. In the legal jargon calipha (caliph) is the greater Islamic ruler ie. Ruler over all Muslims and Muslim lands. It’s general term is khilafa (caliphate) meaning leadership which is a proliferation from the leadership of the Prophet pbuh to protect the religion and the political system of Islamix. Scholars have thus questioned that whether caliphate is a rationale necessity in Islamic political system or a religious onex. I think they have seen these two distinctions in separate perspectives and both of them are right in their own perspective. It is because one group said it is a rationally viable necessity saw it in the interest of worldly life, where as the other group who said it is a religiously ordained injunction saw it both in the perspective of obeying God’s command and reaping worldly as well as spiritual benefits through this. The verse of holy Quran also suggests a specific form of political system in Islam a system where leadership is subservient to Divine authorityxi. But this should not be a valid ground where people will use negation-principle to rebel rulers who are not subservient to Divine authority unless certain conditions are fulfilledxii.
The conditions of a valid caliphate are seven xiii:
a) Justice with it’s complete conditionsxiv
b) Ability to deal with prevailing and contemporary issues of his time
c) Perfection in hearing, speaking and listening for efficiency in maintaing and running the office.
d) Perfections in limb and body.
e) Sharp intellect
f) Courage and integrity to engage against the enemies
g) From the lineage of the Quraish
Point d could be said to have been more suitable when caliphs used to engage in actual battle unless the caliph himself is a military general like positions held by Hitler or Pinochet, this condition is rarely seen and yet needed in today’s world but I think a caliph should be an expert in military strategy and tactics and as being the head of the armed forces of Islamic state should position himself as such.
Point f is very much needed in today’s time when most of the Muslim leaders are cowering in fear and insecurity of their own potentials apart from the marvelous example which Iran is showing.
Point g is very important as this is a religious injunction where others have been deduced from the spirit of Divine texts. Only a person who can be traced to the lineage of the Quraish dynasty can be a candidate for caliphate and so the Islamic ummah has no other choice but to choose as their ultimate and supreme leader an Arab from the prophet’s dynasty. This is the special condition which I mentioned in the beginning section. Now are Muslims psychologically ready to accept this? Are they ready to start the phase to realize this? It is extremely difficult when the Muslims are poisoned by the notion of western nationalism and western democracy.
Modern nation states have been based on the concept of secularism and democracy and it is not easy to see them only in terms of territories without their political ideas shaping such landscapes. However the Islamic concept of nationstate is based on Islamic nation and caliphate as stated, and how this caliphate materializes is a matter we need to shed some light on. The caliphate is legally established in two ways and the third way even though not legal but once established Muslims are obliged to follow. The first way is through the selective process of ahl hil wal aqdxv. These are the people who are experts in Islamic jurisprudencexvi, and to Imam Nawawi intellectuals to whom people go in their needsxvii. All of the companions were more or less people of reason and religious comprehension specially those who were there to establish the four caliphates. It is also noteworthy that not even all people participated in the selection of Abu Bakr (ra) but only five agreed and others followed in their footsteps, and we cannot say the undemocratic start of Islamic caliphate was wrong and void of any benefits. Hence the concept of democracy which is the other half of modern nation states cannot be said to accommodate such an Islamic structure. The second way of establishing the caliphate is through transfer of the power of Caliphate by a previous caliph to someone meeting the conditions of caliph. It is because Abu Bakr transferred the caliphate to Umar (ra) and there is ijma (consensus) on this type of caliph choosingxviii. The third way is not legal but a result of event which bestows on the population a rulerxix. An example would be some Muslim ruler enforcing his authority on Muslims through armed attack and thereby overtaking the location and installing new monotheistic government. I say this because Muslims are not allowed to be ruled by a disbeliever or a government which bans Islamic values and culture from people’s lives. This is only when people are able to unite and rebel against this government. This type of government due to showing “kufr bawah (open disbelief)” has lost legitimacy and invoked disobedience from Muslimsxx.
I discussed above about the Islamic political system which affects the formulation and molding of the Islamic nation states just as secularism and democracy forms and shapes the modern nation states every day.
Now I will discuss about the nation who makes such states. The concept of Islamic nation is cohesive showing gravitational pull towards the centre where every nation states and every Muslims of every race residing in such states are the physical masses, the caliphate being the unseen gravitational force. All these make up the Islamic nation and in Arabic termed as Ummah. Ummah’s lexical meaning is “a way or a religion”. It’s theological meaning can be found in holy Quran which addresses Muslims as people of righteousness on faithxxi. This same norm of address was given to prophet Abaham pbuh. It stated him as an Ummah. If we compare these two verse we find that Ummah is any person or persons who share with each other the monotheistic faith and religion. I will accept the concept of modern nation states (the four conditions) as stated earlier in the essay. I will extend that definition to include the government as Islamic political system and the territory being primarily Muslim. How Islamic ummah can form government for it’s territory? Now caliphate is not a sudden emergence but in the modern context I believe that first Islamic rulers and governments should emerge locally and then establish the caliphate when sufficient number of Islamic government has formed. Another way is an Islamic government will form on a Muslim territory and it shall call for the Ummah to establish caliphate. In this sense modern nation states and Islamic caliphate and Ummah is not contradictory but complementary. First I need to discuss does this Ummah have a duty to initiate such a process to caliphate because the concept of modern nation states largely depends on the will of the people? Yes it does as mentioned in Imam Mawardi’s book which states that Muslims have a collective obligation to choose their caliph. The process is also very specific: Two groups will appear one who will call for the caliphate and another who will select from the former a caliphxxii. It is no problem even if the callers to caliphate all belong to the Quraish lineage. It is not an obligation that only one person from Quraish comes forth., but the condition is that the caliphate must not go out from the Quraish.
It is true that modern nation states exist as independent jurisdictions from each other but nonetheless it is percievable that even such independent jurisdictions can be brought about under one rule of law or even further government and military. If we consider NATO and EU we see one body of law is supreme over all members of EU and that one military is supreme and serves interest of these members even though the legal systems of such countries are different and even though they are independent government. But the concept of Islamic caliphate goes even a bit further. The centralized government will be the seat of caliphate and the law shall be legislated from the government of the caliphate. It is possible that there could be one set of laws transcending all Muslim lands under this caliphate just as the federal laws of USA, and it is also possible that each Muslim state can adopt it’s own laws through it’s own Islamic madhab just as US states have it’s own state laws for all the states it has got. If the caliph so wishes it is also foreseeable to give
certain powers to the provincial governments to enter into foreign relations on behalf of that province. The only transcendent rule is “Caliphate shall be appointed and will have the power which overturns all provincial codes and laws, and that a separate council of Islamic jurists to oversee the works of the caliph whether conforming to Quran and Sunnah or not, just as the Guardian Council in Iran.” However such a council should be there only to monitor the workings of the caliphate but not to impose anything, as they themselves should be subservient to the caliph in all maters of good and benefits of the ummah and Islam. The establishment of Islamic caliphate will not erase boundaries of Muslim lands but will consolidate the lands under a single powerful caliphate. This is what Islamic nationalism is to me. Democracy will play very little role if any and democratic process shall only be allowed in low level provinces through the permission of the caliphate if he sees so fit. I want to mention why people today crave for democracy? Firstly, secularism actively promotes democracy because to prevent the misuse of power from the rulers, as rulers in this system have no loyalty but to their selves and parties, where as in Islam caliph and provincial rulers must have loyalty to Allah, Lord to who all Muslims must show their loyalty to. It is lack of faith from the secularists in their rulers and it is also greed for power that they crave democracy which is the blood of modern nation states. Germans adored Hitler even though the ruthless dictator to others, he was, because German had faith in him and he fulfilled German aspirations and raised the German head high which the treaty of Versailles had cut of. Unlike Fascism or Democracy Islam demands from us obedience to our ruler and demands the rulers to love the people.
There are lot of Islamic parties today in the world scattered through Muslim lands but some of them lacks motivation or lacks a real sense to pursue establishment of caliphate. There is lack of interconnectivity among them and organization is not multilayered and fragile. On the other hand Muslims have been deeply deceived by the hoax of western democracy and western pursuit of freedom. They think through change of values will come the change in economy and technology but they are wrong. Modern nation states developed through the efforts of it’s people and by same analogy it is meaningful that we Muslims develop ourselves and lands through our effort which has it’s root sowed in belief in caliphate and ummah.
Conclusion
As I have discussed it is clear that certain conditions must be fulfilled for islamic caliphate and ummah to
adapt with the modern nation states which are being:
a) Muslim acceptance of the Islamic caliphate
b) Each state subservient to the Islamic caliphate more like federal states and the caliphate similar to EU in in structure superseding provincial laws of the Muslim states, but yet extending more power over such provinces
c) Flexibility in adopting any Islamic madhab throughout the provinces and striking a balance between the Caliphate madhad (similar to federal laws) with the provincial madhabs (similar to federal state laws).
These three conditions if fulfilled Muslim states can exist as well as the islamic caliphate, Allah willing. The only requirement is the will to submit and the will to form. We have seen what lack of will from the security council to progress peace did to the world, and we also see what lack of will from Muslim rulers is doing to Ummah and the doctrine of Islamic caliphate. What separates us from matters of universe is our will to act.
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End Notes
iSuch a definition is a working one: “All attempts to develop terminological consensus around nation resulted in failure”, concludes Tishkov, Valery (2000).
iiRebecca M M Wallace & Anne Holliday, International Law (2nd Ed), pg 49 Sweet & Maxwell, London
iiiFor example see Arbitration Commission of The European Conference on Yugoslavia 1991, Opinion Number 1.
ivSergio Romano. An Outline of European History 1789 -1989. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1999
vMotyl. Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Vol. 1: Fundamental Themes, 2001, p. 251
viKymlicka, Will. (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 16.
vii2:30 Al-Baqarah Tafsir Zamakhshari by Imam Zamakhshari.
viii see Ibn Katheer in Stories of the Prophets.
ixImam Mawardi, Book of Imamah Pg 1, in Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyya.
xIbid
xi4:59 Holy Quran
xiiThat needs separate discussion under “rebellion in Islam”
xiii Imam Mawardi, Book of Imamah Pg 3, in Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyya.
xiv See “conditions of Adalah”, Sunnah, in Rauda An-Nazir by Imam Ibn Qudama Al-Maqdasi.
xvImam Mawardi, Book of Imamah Pg 3, in Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyya.
xviImam Nawawi, Book of Imamah, Minhaj Al-Talibeen
xvii Ibid
xviii Imam Mawardi, Book of Imamah Pg 8, in Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyya.
xixHadith narrated by Anas ibn Malik in Bukhari with wording in passive tense “…were made your chief…”
xxHadith Narrated by Ubada Ibn Samit in Bukhari and Muslim
xxiAl-Imran 110 and Al-Nahl 120.
xxii Imam Mawardi, Book of Imamah Pg 2, in Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyya.

Thursday, October 30, 2014

International law and Theocracy : A Proposal

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The legal validity of theocracy in international law

Bismillah Ar Rahman Ar Raheem

1.0  Introduction & background

“Theocracy is a form of government in which official policy is governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or is simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group” (Merriam-Webster, 2007). Democracy has become the dominant form of government in the world. Even though there are many other forms of governments recognized by political science, people’s ignorance and/or inapplicability of those in the state level, have made them only academic studies. One of the most persuasive and once dominant forms of government is theocracy. It finds its validity in religious texts. How successful can it be in people’s hearts? How can it reconcile with secular freedom? And the most important question is how much legal validity does it have in international community? This last question above all needs to be answered in light of the research.

1.1 Need for the research

History has seen many wars especially in the middle ages, wars which were fuelled by the cause of religion and just cause. Many people have died championing the cause of just wars and religions, but many have also died championing the cause of extremism. Recently in the world the fight for a religious government has emerged in the wake of terrorist attack of 2011. Even though the conflict between secular and religious is an old age rivalry, it has emerged in a new form where the former speaks of preemptive strike and the latter speaks of terrorist martyrdom. Can the differences between the two be resolved through a mutual agreement by international law? I believe my research will be able to in the least propose a solution and a step in the future. By this each faction can understand each other, and international law can play its major role and the primary role of maintaining international peace and promoting friendly relationship among people. It will help people understand that religion is not about impairment of freedom or the government of extremists, but it is more than that. It will help also to diminish an extremist thought in religious governance, and may convince some extremists also that both religious government and modern world can co-exist, peacefully. If it can be shown that international community and in large international law is not the enemy of theocracy and religious government then may be perhaps the tension will slightly lower, and people can see for a new age of religious tolerant governance, appreciating the role of religion and international law. It is based on a normative form of theocracy which I believe International Law allows. 

1.2 Purpose of the research

This research will deal with the legal issues, and discussing the technicalities of international law vis-à-vis theocratic legal systems. It will establish a legal link between theocracy and international law. Theocracy and the harmony with international law, and how to refine the extreme form of theocracy and make it fit in the context of International Law is the main objective of my study.

1.3 Thesis statement

Does international law allow for the existence of a theocratic regime which allegedly is feared to violate human right? I believe that international law allows in its system the existence of a normative theocracy. 

“Normative” meaning refined through international law and having legal injunctions worthy of being a legal system as well as political system yet maintaining the theocratic nature.

1.0  Literature Review: Major theocracies & International Law

I have discussed many forms of theocracies in which writers have endeavored upon either to establish a certain positive claim or a negative one. Due to theocratic legal systems being different its political systems also tend to be different, so I have discussed them in paragraphs.

The following passages will examine the major studies done in the relevant theocracy, and will also touch on the nature of international law dealing with governmental purpose. 

2.1 Jewish theocracy 

The term theocracy did not originate in any religious texts but it represents a form of government which is that of God (Kim 1972). Within this scope lies the definition of all forms of theocracies.  To start with Jewish theocracy would be a facilitator in understanding the divergent nature of theocracy. “Jewish theocracy is inevitably bound to be destructive of a real state in a real world” (weiler, 1997) - a theocracy which at the very onset is against the objective of international law, because international law is all about peaceful co-existence (UN Charter preamble & article 1). Does it mean that Jewish theocracy is not fit to rule or exist in the modern arena of nation states? Jews are a minority, and it would be difficult to exist on such aggressive theocracy for long, if it were to be established, purely. Then what other forms can there be in Jewish theocracy which may be in harmony with the concept of co-existence? Jewish theocracy says weiler is three folded: Anti-political, Rabbinical & anti-democratic anti secular (weiler, 1997). It may be that rabbinical norm which is so much aggressive who may treat the gentiles (non-Jews) in a very discriminatory way. As to the anti-political form would mean simply submitting to a purely religious form of life where the daily activities of life is governed by the government of rabbis and religious rituals, not to say the laws reaching to affect the level of state or existing government.  It could also be argued that the other two forms simply highlight Gentile hatred and Jewish separatism (Spinoza 1670). I believe that in order for Jewish theocracy to exist in a form compatible with international peace and international law, tolerance of the gentiles should be legislated and incorporated in the norm.

2.2 Christian theocracy

God is the only good King (Palmquist 1993). This is the summation of Christian theocracy to the author. On the basis of this the whole concept of Christian theocracy is built by the author. Absolute freedom is in God, he proposes, and that only government which can achieve this is theocracy. Even though he has vehemently opposed democracy, nonetheless democracy is also allowed by international law. It should be no shock that two allowed forms of government be in conflict in international law just as democracy and communism was in the cold war.  The kingdom of the Supreme King is acknowledged through the rule of pious men. In the Old Testament it was the prophets and to him in this present era it would be the church. Unlike secular government and just like other theocracies he foresees a government not of land or state only but of the soul also.  He shuns the isolationist policy that politics is evil and bad on the basis that men who make it bad but politics is a tool to achieve certain aims. He however only foresees bible as the only way of establishing peace in society but not international law. Pacifism is not an option in bible according to him, but what he promotes is just war which would mean also wars of aggression and he proposes a war of retribution for the wrongdoers, retribution of God implemented through the theocrats.  This reminds us of the crusades, wars of the church for a just cause in their theological reasoning, but not a just war so much in the modern sense of international law.

2.3 Islamic theocracy

The term Islamic state was coined by Maududi. He affirms the role of Islam in politics in the modern era, and proposes a theory for Islamic government. He establishes that the state of Islam must be based on unity of Allah Supreme, Prophethood and Caliphate. He proposes Islamic democracy a challenge to western secular democracy (Maududi 1976). He establishes a theocracy of Islam where only Muslims are allowed to rule due to the security issues of the state. “Islamic 'jihad' does not recognize their right to administer state affairs according to a system which, in the view of Islam, is evil. Furthermore, Islamic 'jihad' also refuses to admit their right to continue with such practices under an Islamic government which fatally affect the public interest from the viewpoint of Islam" (Maududi, 1939). He proposes an aggressive war stating “Islam wishes to destroy all states and governments anywhere on the face of the earth which are opposed to the ideology and programme of Islam, regardless of the country or the nation which rules it” (Maududi 1939). However it should be asked that prior to the adoption of UN charter in1945 how much is an aggressive war prohibited? How this sentence from Maududi is reconciled now with UN charter? Maududi proposed the theory of Islamic theocracy and it can be said Khomeini implemented it. Even though not fully clerical theocracy but nonetheless a theocracy was proposed by him stating “"We do not say that government must be in the hands of" an Islamic jurist, "rather we say that government must be run in accordance with God's law” but he encouraged clerical rule for the safety of religious integrity and jurisprudence “Only rule by a leading Islamic jurist  would prevent "innovation" in Sharia or Islamic law and insure it was properly followed” (Khomeini 1981).The concept of human rights is implicit in the Islamic doctrine of obeying Allah Supreme (Khomeini 1981). Thus Islamic theocracy of Iran has adopted the Cairo declaration of human rights. How much international law condones it is analyzed later on.  (For discussion on this see http://islamichumanrights.weebly.com)    

Was there really theocracy in Afghanistan or rule by clerics who implemented something else? Not everyone will believe what I asked, but the contrary to criticize theocracy. Afghanistan says Travis was a hotbed for civil war after the Islamic revolution against the Soviets (Travis 2003). He cited the darker side of a government which fought Soviets, i.e Taliban fighters. Taliban theocracy was vicious and brutal, and was responsible for atrocities and massacre. Taliban was supported by USA, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan and their success largely due to these states, even though USA later renounced it and left it to isolation until 2001. Taliban theocracy was thus to Travis was a failure and more over a form of criminal gang of rulers to implement Islamic law. 

2.4 Rawls on Theocracy   

Theocracy cannot be a positive form of government because it bars people’s rights and does not “guarantee the right of people to choose their own conceptions of the good life” (Roberts, 1998). To Rawls there are no objective moral values which Theocracy proposes. He defines the choices of reasonable people and the form of political doctrine they ought to choose. However to me moral values and political freedom in a state is the matter of the people’s right to consent or not consent. If people consent to the theocracy and to be governed by a set of doctrines which make their lives easier and spiritually positive i.e. spirituality of love and tolerance, along with justice to be understanding and flexible in its application., then theocracy can be a good form of governance, a form which can exist in international relations of states. 

2.5 The return of theocracy

 Religious parties have made a comeback to international sphere and “a new legal order has emerged: constitutional theocracy” (Hirschl 2008). He has discussed the need to study theocracy in the constitutional context, and after studying several constitutions which endorses a religious element he has come to believe that world politics can no longer ignore it. His research has endorsed the importance of acknowledging religious as an important player in forming constitution and state laws in the world, which leads to the need for my research as to how should a theocracy ought to exist on the basis of international legal system?

2.6 The nature of International Law

The main purpose of international law is to establish and maintain world peace and respect for human rights (UN charter 1945 & ICCPR 1966). International legal system tries it’s best to uphold the norms of Jus cogens, and judges on all forms of governments and/or legal systems which violates the Jus cogens norm as well as treaty laws & customary international laws (ICJ, Nicaragua case). Therefore it recognizes any or all governments De Jure or Ipso Facto (Wallace, 2010) provided they also recognize their obligations under international law (ICJ Statute article 36). 

2.0  Methodology

The research is library based, mainly. It also takes in to account media, religious edicts published in leaflets or proposed in parliament. I take in to consideration primary texts on theocracies including its interpretations. As this is a comparative analytical research, the interpretation and juristic opinions regarding the relevant fields of international law is compared with the theocratic laws and political theories, at times scrutinizing each other, and proposing a preferred view in my opinion. Also incompatibilities of the practical with the “ought to be” form are analyzed, and the “whys” and “hows” of such conflict are explained with possible resolutions if any. Also the flexible nature of international law is analyzed to that of inflexible practices of international legal subjects, if any. 

One of the practical approaches will be to take the speeches and quotes of theocratic figures and understand them in context of international law. It is because misunderstanding of such lead to misunderstanding of theocracy in particular and religions in general. What they have to offer is best understood when they are heard and understood. A study of how dominant theocracies of the world governed international relations in the absence of contemporary international law, is also taken.

Interviews with theocrats are done. Their ideas questioned to them, and their thought on co-existence of international law and theocratic government. 

Exemplary questions to be asked for survey:

a)    How theocracy can make a difference towards world stability?

b)    How do you tackle western human rights in conflict with theocratic human rights?

c)     Do you justify wars of aggression to promote just cause? If so, why?

d)    How credible is international law to you as you represent the Divine law?

e)    What if your version of theocracy is incompatible with international law and world community are you ready to wage a holy war?

Questions may be elaborated while in interview.

3.0  Limitations

The limitations rise due to the complete absence of prolonged theocratic rule in the contemporary world. Practical studies are thus limited by this, hence are heavily theory based and analytical. Also access to leading theocrats may be a problem due to their conservatism and suspicion to media and publicity.

Research for theocracy is rare, and most of the researches are against it or at least against its authority.  It is thus difficult to portray what theocratic form in international law is allowed provided the essence of theocracy is not altered. My research will contribute towards this, inshallah. 

4.0  Timescale

The research project is planned to be finished within five to six months, from the date of submission of the proposal.

References Kim, David. Theocracy in the Old Testament. Ashland Theological Journal ATJ 05:0 1972. http://www.galaxie.com/article/34 Weiler, Gershon (1997). Jewish Theocracy. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing

Silvertone & Israel (Ed.) Spinoza: Theological-Political Treatise. Cambridge, England: Cambridge 2007.   
Palmquist Stepehen (1993). Biblical Theocracy. HongKong: Philopsychy Press.   
Maududi, Abu Ala. Political theory of Islam in Islam: it’s meaning and message. 
Ahmad Khurshid, Ed. London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1976, pp. 159–61.   
Maududi, Abu Ala. Jihad in Islam. Beirut, Lebanon: Holy Quran Publishing house, 1980, p 6, 7, 22.   
Khomeini, Ayatollah (1981). Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Tehran: Mizan press.   
Travis, Hanibal (2005). FREEDOM OR THEOCRACY?: CONSTITUTIONALISM IN AFGHANISTAN AND IRAQ. Journal of International Human rights, vol 3.   
Robert B. Thigpen (1998). Rawls and the challenge of theocracy to freedom. Journal of Church and State  Vol. 40 Nbr. 4.   
Ran Hirschl, The Rise of Constitutional Theocracy, 49 Harv. Int'l L.J. Online 72 (2008), http://www.harvardilj.org/2008/10/online_49_hirschl/.   
OHCHR (2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm Accessed 29/05/2012 ICJ. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. USA), Merits, Judg. 27 June 1986 ( Reports 1986, p. 14)   
ICJ. STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE, article 36.   
Wallace, Rebecca, M M (2010). International Law. United Kingdom: Sweet & Maxwell.      


http://www.orthodoxislam.org/international-law-and-theocracy-a-proposal.html

Tuesday, September 30, 2014

Dealing with Psychosocial Problems: Application of the Islamization of Social Science

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Dealing with Psychosocial Problems:

Application of the Islamization of Social Science Methodology


by 

Ibrahim A. Ragab 

Professor, Department of Sociology & Anthropology 

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia 

E-Mail: iaragab@hotmail.com

________________________________________

This is a modified version of a paper submitted to the Second Integration Workshop, Organized by the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge & Human Sciences, September 1997.

[Psychosocial Problems - Social Work - Islamization Of Knowledge – Spirituality – Assessment- Intervention - Islamization of Social Science – Islamic Perspectives – Ibrahim Ragab]


Dealing with Psychosocial Problems : A Partial Attempt at

The Application of the Islamization of Social Science Methodology


I- Introduction

The Islamization of Knowledge (IOK) project is now almost twenty years old, but is it coming of age yet? There are those who maintain that the movement is still in its infancy, and that we should not expect much of it as yet. Others feel that the project could have done much better, given the fact that it did start with an exceptionally clear idea of its goals, and with a well-designed program to achieve them in the form of a detailed Workplan. The truth seems to reside somewhere in between these two positions. On the one hand, a lot has been indeed accomplished in terms of bringing the idea to the attention of untold numbers of scholars across the World of Islam. The IOK idea is increasingly gaining adherents, as it is gaining in the clarity of its core concepts. It is becoming clear that it could be approached through two pathways, which should converge in the long run, i.e. the Islamization of the social sciences (ISSc), and the reform of Islamic (Sharia) sciences. Fortunately, the contours of the methodology for the Islamization of the social sciences seem to be fast taking shape. However, we have to admit that work done until now still leaves a lot to be desired. Most contributions are still too general and too abstract. Many participants in the project do not feel comfortable with mere general descriptions of the methodology. Unless they see specific examples of applications of the Islamization of social sciences methodology, a cloud of vagueness would still shroud the project.

But to attempt to apply the Islamization of social science methodology to a specific subject or to an area of specialized content at this point in time should-as a matter of principle-be out of question, for very obvious reasons. The methodology of (ISSc) is a complex, two-tiered process. It could never be conceived of as a one-shot effort, to be completed by a single individual or organization, at a single point in time. As will be discussed below, that methodology consists of two distinct but closely linked phases: 1) integral theorizing and, 2) validation through research. Each phase by its nature assumes an extended time frame, requires certain sequencing with the other one, and each is obviously based in interdisciplinary collaborative efforts. Each by itself is extremely demanding. What is being attempted does not follow clear precedent as much as exploring uncharted terrain. This is a drastically different situation from what you would expect in the more routine, "normal" science, theory-building and research. 

However, recognizing the need to counteract what looks like a creeping sense of disillusionment about the practicality even of the concept of Islamization of Knowledge itself, it may be justifiable to provide at least a partial attempt at the application of the (ISSc) methodology to a specific area. The only condition, however, is that the attempt – as premature as it may be- should not compromise what is methodologically sound. It should be indicative of the possibilities without attempting the methodologically unattainable. This indeed is the only justification of attempting something like the current exercise, which consciously strives to abide by these conditions. To explain what is meant here, let me lay out the strategy adopted in the current work:

1) An attempt will be made at the "partial" application of only “the first phase” of the Islamization of social science methodology (integral theorizing) to a specific, concrete subject, i.e. the etiology and treatment of psychosocial problems.

2) The second phase of the methodology, while not attempted at all, will only be tangentially approached, that is, by suggesting examples of possible research problems - directly derived from the outcome of phase one (integral theorizing) - for testing in future research or professional practice. 

It is hoped that this strategy would adequately address the limited purpose of the exercise, i.e. to demonstrate the mechanics involved in the task of "integration" of Islamic revealed knowledge with the relevant social science scholarship. It should be made clear at this point that even under the best of circumstances, this exercise does not by itself constitute an Islamization of the selected subject… only the first phase thereof. By pointing out propositions derived from the integrated theoretical framework, it is hoped that researchers would be sensitized to the still-unfinished task of the second requirement of Islamization methodology i.e. validating any theoretical insights through rigorous research and professional practice.

In the first part of this paper, a preliminary statement will be made on the basic assumptions regarding the concept of (ISSc) and the major components of its methodology. In the second part, a brief account of the Islamic perspective on human nature is introduced, which shows its distinctiveness as contrasted with the prevailing positivist/ empiricist paradigm. On the basis of the discussion of human nature, we move in the third part to discuss the nature of personal, psychosocial problems and their etiology from an Islamic perspective. An attempt is then made in the fourth part to describe the basic components of interventions that may help alleviate such problems on the basis of the analyses introduced in the previous parts of the paper. 

As far as the treatment of the subject and the presentation of the material are concerned, certain restrictions are unavoidable. The subject of this paper is evidently so broad that it could only be attempted in book-length work. Selection of relevant material is determined by the purpose of the exercise, i.e. to provide an example of the application of the methodology of the Islamization of the social sciences. Limitations of space would not allow for full systematic documentation of the vast Arabic material on which the paper is based. Only a few most essential verses from the Quran (out of the –literally- hundreds of verses relevant to the subject) are included. No attempt is made at exhaustiveness or representativeness of all views on the subject neither in modern social sciences nor in Islamic revealed knowledge. A long article on the subject - in Arabic - will be published soon which is includes significant Arabic quotations, more documentation, and more details.

II- Basic Assumptions

Islamization Of Knowledge And Islamization Of The Social Sciences :

The classical definition and the elucidation of the concept of Islamization of Knowledge introduced by the late Ismael Al-Faruki in his seminal paper in 1982 still captures the essence of that process, especially from the standpoint of those currently involved in the Islamization of the social sciences. To Islamize, to him, is to "recast knowledge as Islam relates to it.. i.e. to redefine and reorder the data, to rethink the reasoning and relating of the data, to reevaluate the conclusions, to reproject the goals - and to do so in such a way as to make the disciplines enrich the vision and serve the cause of Islam" (p.15). As he elaborates on the process through which these objectives could be attained, he describes the "necessary steps [which] must be taken, their logical order defines the order of priority belonging to each..". The three main components of the IOK process could be simply paraphrased as follows:

1- Mastery of modern disciplines, and the critical assessment of their methodologies, research findings, and theories from the vantage point of the Islamic perspective. 

2 - Mastery of the Islamic legacy, and the critical assessment of Islamic scholarship against a) a pristine Revelational perspective b) current needs of the Ummah, and c) modern advances in human knowledge.

3- Creative synthesis of the Islamic legacy and modern knowledge; a creative leap "to bridge over the gap of centuries of non-development". (p.p. 38-45).

This conceptualization of IOK is very readily applicable to the Islamization of the social sciences, i.e. the first pathway to the Islamization of Knowledge. It will be used as our guide to the methodology of the social sciences and to its attempted application. As far as the second pathway is concerned those currently engaged in Islamic “Sharia” sciences should be expected to start with a focus on task 2 above looking into ways of reforming their specialization, moving in the direction of integration with modern social sciences. But in the long run, both pathways are expected to merge into one unified Islamic-oriented science. 

A Methodology for Islamization of the Social Sciences:

Even the cursory examination of the foregoing conceptualization of Islamization of Knowledge shows it to be a straightforward, almost intuitive process. The conceptualization, however, is too general. The third component in particular, i.e. the "creative synthesis" of the Islamic legacy and modern knowledge, admittedly the most crucial task, is also the most difficult one to deal with. We are left here without specific guidelines as to how this feat could be achieved. That task is understandably very demanding, but it is not as hopeless or forbidding as it initially appears. How can we reconcile the two divergent realms of knowledge, Islamic revealed knowledge and the social sciences? How can we combine their respective methodologies into one unified scheme of scientific investigation - without infringing on any intrinsic, inviolable characteristics of either one? 

The solution seems to lie squarely in the familiar formula for the dialectical relationship of theory and research. [For a detailed discussion, see e.g. Ragab, 1993). The methodology for achieving that synthesis of Islamic revealed knowledge and the social sciences could be attempted basically in two distinct but closely related phases. In the first phase, insights from both sources of knowledge are integrated into a unified or integral "theoretical framework". In the second phase, hypotheses derived from that theoretical framework are to be validated in well-designed research and practice efforts. A brief description of the specific steps of that model for Islamizing any particular social science subject is summarized below.

Phase I : Integral Theorizing:

(1) Survey, and rigorous assessment, of relevant social science contributions dealing with the subject under study. This would be carried out as follows:

1. Identification of all conceptual frameworks and research findings that pertain to the subject studied - both within the generally accepted "normal" science sources and the marginal, dissenting views in the concerned discipline.

2. Rigorous critique of both types of contributions (normal and critical) from the vantage point of the Islamic perspective (that is, the distinctive Islamic epistemology and ontology especially as it relates to God, man, and society). 

3. Sifting out concepts, empirical generalizations, and observations which stood the test of that rigorous critique, from those which failed the test (normally this will be found in the form of theoretical frameworks steeped in a warped, incomplete, limited and/or limiting philosophy of science).

(2) Survey, and rigorous assessment, of relevant Islamic revealed knowledge material, which deal with the subject under study. This would be carried out as follows:

1. Identification of all verses of the Noble Quran and the Sayings of the Prophet (PBUH) which pertain to the subject. Search of standard exegeses for acceptable interpretations of these verses and of the selected Hadiths.

2. Searching the works of prominent Muslim scholars-past and present-which dealt directly or indirectly with the subject. Such contributions should also be assessed to determine whether they indeed have any intrinsic value of their own that transcends their specific time and space.

3. The combination of insights gained from the Quran and Sunnah and appropriate Islamic scholarship into one theoretical framework, which may represent the Islamic perspective on the subject.

(3) Development of the unified "integral" theoretical framework, which combines insights from both Islamic, revealed knowledge sources and valid human experience as follows:

1. Rearrangement of all valid research findings and social science concepts, which withstood the verification and assessment process; and the reinterpretation of these findings, utilizing the theoretical insights gained through steps (1) and (2) above.

2. Statement of the results of such a synthesis in the form of clear, formal propositions, which would constitute the building blocks of a coherent deductive system that lends itself to the process of deriving hypotheses for testing in research and practice in Phase II.

Phase II : Validation of the integral theoretical framework through rigorous research and practice:

(1) Hypotheses generated from the integral theoretical framework should be tested in "total reality" which includes both the empirical and the nonempirical aspects of the world. Testing and validation could take place a) in well-designed pieces of research, and b) in controlled practice episodes within the helping professions (such as social work and counseling).

(2) If hypotheses derived from the integral theoretical framework are confirmed, our confidence in that framework increases. This would lead to further development and internal differentiation of our integral theory…as is the case with normal science activities.

(3) If the hypotheses were rejected, that means either a) that our research methods and our practice procedures are wanting; or b) that our understanding or interpretation of revelation included in Phase I is incorrect and needs reformulation. Corrective action should be taken either way. 

III- Human Nature in the Islamic Perspective 

It would be inconceivable to study the dynamics of why human beings suffer psychosocial problems without basing the study on a clear understanding of what exactly constitutes this “human being”. There is no question that all theorizing in the social sciences do rest on assumptions about human nature. However, such assumptions are rarely put forward explicitly, let alone being critically examined. They are taken for granted - a matter of faith …almost ! Which is a disservice to science. It flies in the face of the spirit of honest and impartial scientific investigation. When we examine such assumptions, it becomes immediately clear to us that social scientists generally embrace the specific Western civilizational worldview, and use its tenets as their working ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying all theory building. Even when we have apparently very different schools of thought in the social sciences, the proponents of each generally still operate within the parameters of their all-embracing cultural constellation.

Augros and Stancieu, in an interesting chapter in their 1984 book on "The New Story of Science", spared us the need for detailed documentation of the positions taken by different schools of thought in modern Western scholarship regarding human nature. They critically reviewed the ontological and the epistemological assumptions upon which Western thinkers and particularly behavioral scientists have based their understanding of the nature of the human being. They paid special attention to contrasting the views held by the major leading figures in the different schools of psychology. 

Psychoanalysts especially Freud, according to them, do not see in the human being anything but his material body, driven by instincts or drives, and hopelessly a prisoner of his past. The behaviorists, especially Watson, were even more materialistic and more mechanistic to the extent of denying any role for a human mind. In contrast, the Humanists and the Cognitive/ Mentalists went so far as to recognize a role for the mind, awareness, and intentionality of human behavior. However, when a leading humanist, Abraham Maslow (1971), went as far as admitting a role for a “spiritual life” for certain “evolved” human beings, he hastened to declare that this spiritual life is instinctoid, species-wide, but has to be conceived of only as an aspect of human biology. “It is a kind of ‘higher’ animality…”(p.p. 313-315). It goes without saying that all the mainstream schools of thought in the social sciences, past and present, were concerned in their explorations only with life in “this” world, nothing beyond. There is no role for a transcendent spirit or soul. No role for God, except when seen as a human invention. Bergin (1980) testifies that "an examination of 30 introductory psychology texts turned up no references to the possible reality of spiritual factors. Most did not have the words God or religion in their indexes".

Islamic revealed knowledge, in contrast, provides us with a radically different view of human nature, which do - at the same time - encompass whatever seems essential in social science scholarship. An integral theoretical framework informed by the Islamic perspective may tentatively be stated briefly in something like the following propositions:

(1) Human beings are unique, dignified creatures, created by The One God (in Arabic, Allah): the omnipotent, omniscient, most merciful; who is in complete control over the whole universe, which in its entirety was created by Him -unaided and without any partners or intermediaries.

(2) Human beings were created with a purpose, that is, to worship God (ibadah) -which includes the following:

a. Knowing God, identifying his unmatchable Noble Attributes,

b. Feeling the awesomeness of His power and infinite mercy, with the result of being filled with unbounded reverence and love to Him. 

c. Acting according to His commands, as they settle on earth and take charge of their duties of utilizing its resources and caring for it (imarah & istikhlaf).

(3) A human being is made up basically of two components: a material body and a transcendent, non-material spirit or soul. The unity of the two components brings into existence a new composite that may be thought of as the psyche (nafs), the behavior of which is observable, with its functions discernible. This emergent aspect of human existence is what we normally think of when we refer to "a person". It is incessantly concerned with the "survival" of the human being. It represents the arena where the dynamic interaction and negotiation between the two basic constituents, body and soul perpetually goes on (compare: ego functions).

(4) Human behavior is the resultant of the dynamic interplay between these two forces as refereed, coordinated, and controlled by the human psyche, as reflected in the stream of consciousness. Man cannot be understood when reduced to either one of these components to the exclusion of the other, or when the dynamic "interaction" between the two components is ignored.

(5) Because of the very nature of the body and its strong, persistent, unremitting, and continuous need for material gratification, it tends to more readily get the attention of the total person. Maslow comes very close to realizing this, when his empirical observations lead him to conclude that our animal, material, "lower" needs are prepotent to our spiritual, "higher" needs, which are in comparison… "timid and weak, and so easily lost.." (p. 315).

(6) As the "person” is perennially preoccupied with his survival (staying as one unity) he tends to go to excesses - overstepping his bounds - in his single-minded devotion to ministering to his bodily needs. This naturally leads to certain behaviors characteristic of those who are obsessed with the pursuance of bodily, material gratifications. The Noble Quran provides us with certain details on many of these unflattering tendencies as characteristic of al-Insan "the human being" who indulges for example in: 

a) hoarding and accumulating of worldly possessions,

b) holding tight (with miserliness) to what material amenities he accumulates,

c) becomes overly frustrated if he looses some, and 

d) becomes overly vain when he has more than what he needs. 

A person who only succumbs to such human tendencies (which means that he has become forgetful of his spiritual calling), surrendering himself to such types of indulgent behavior, invariably leads a bungled life of perpetual worry and recurrent dissatisfaction and frustration. The Holy Quran tells us: “Truly man was created very impatient (19) Fretful when evil touches him (20) And niggardly when good reaches him (21) Not so those devoted to Prayer (22) Those who remain steadfast to their prayer (23) And those in whose wealth is a recognized right (24) For the (needy) who asks and him who is prevented (for some reason from asking)(25) And those who hold to the truth of the Day of Judgment (26) And those who fear the displeasure of their Lord (27)” [Al-Ma’rij].

(7) But the "spiritual aspect" of human existence [note verses 22-27 above and subsequent verses in the same Surah] helps counteract these overindulgent tendencies. In a way, it is the only antidote for these potentially destructive tendencies. Spiritual aspects refer basically to the special link between the human being and his Creator. These “spiritual factors” exert their influence on the basis of the following principles:

a. Before human beings came to be into this worldly existence, God summoned all human souls (in a state as if like atoms) to an audience where He acquainted them with His attributes, and they all were asked to declare that they bear witness (ish’had), and do consent to a covenant that He is their Lord. “When thy Lord drew forth from the Children of Adam from their loins, their descendants, and made them testify concerning themselves, (saying): "Am I not your Lord (Who cherishes and sustains you)?" They said: "Yea! We do testify!" (This), lest ye should say on the Day of Judgment: "Of this we were never mindful." Or lest ye should say: "Our fathers before us may have taken false gods, but we are (their) descendants after them: wilt Thou then destroy us because of the deeds of men who were futile?" [Al-A’raf : 172-173]. All human souls came to experience first-hand the awesomeness of God’s power and His infinite mercy. At once they were filled with feelings of love and awe, and knew that they have no “life” in any real sense except through their intimate closeness to Him. This is an expression of the innate, primordial state that may be called (Fitrah).

b. After humans are born and as they gain awareness of their existence, they become open to environmental influences through socialization processes. They need “reminders” of the covenant, which brings us to the significance of the role of the Messengers of God, who transmit Revelation containing the same terms of the covenant, that is (Tawhid). So, whoever has kept his innate fitrah intact will immediately see the truth in "true" revelation once he sees one. But those who have sullied their fitrah would resist the acknowledgement of the truth, and may ignore or even deny God’s message. 

c. God has ordained that whoever sincerely responds to the call of his pristine fitrah (thus becomes among the faithful, and consequently heeds God’s commandments) will invariably lead a good life in this world and will be rewarded with nothing less than the ultimate success (falah) in the hereafter. And for those who have spoiled their fitrah (becoming disbelievers or going astray) their lot will be misery in this life and in the hereafter as well. The concept of an afterlife is pivotal for the Islamic perspective, because it is at the day of final reckoning that all accounts will ultimately be settled, and the final abode in an immortal life of bliss or otherwise is decided. 

d. A person’s heart or (al-qualb) in Islamic usage - not necessarily the physical heart - represents the emotive link between the cognitive and the volitional. Its directive role and its influence over human behavior is pronounced. Al-Ghazalli gives the concept of (al-qualb) an overarching position that overlaps with the whole of the human spirit, that to him is capable of acquiring knowledge, being the locus of fitrah, and being the mainstay of the spiritual functions i.e. link to God. If the heart then is “healthy”, the person would be in a state of continual remembrance of God, behaving only in ways prescribed by Him, and thus living in harmony with himself, with others, and with his Creator. On the other hand, if the heart is “sick”, the spiritual functions are defunct, overindulgence and excessiveness are the rule, behavior is disorderly and erratic, and the quality of total life in general diminishes.

In sum, as the Islamic worldview would have it, human beings are made up of body and soul, born with Tawhid inscribed in their innermost being. Existence in this life is a transient but very significant part of a whole continuum of existence: life- death-resurrection -afterlife. Human beings are accountable to God for everything they do. What is willfully "intended" counts just as do overt actions (concept of Niyyah). How man relates to God is of essence. It determines how man relates to everything in the world around him. Continuous spiritual purification (tazkiyah) affects relationship of man to God and also to fellow man, and it determines -in the last analysis- the quality of human existence. The good life is the balanced life, which takes into consideration both the physical and the spiritual aspects. Success is not to be defined in terms of this-worldly achievements alone, it identifies the hereafter as the "real" state of being that ultimately counts. Its significant place in the scheme of things is highly recognized.

IV - Understanding Psychosocial Problems 

Modern Social Science Perspectives:

The material to be presented in this section is basically meant for the non-specialist who is interested mainly in an example of the application of the methodology of the Islamization of the social sciences. It summarizes very briefly material found in standard textbooks. Modern social scientists agree that human beings are inherently “social” beings. They are driven to live in groups to be able to satisfy their inexhaustible human needs. This leads them to engage in all sorts of “interactions” as they seek gratification of their needs. As interactions are repeated under similar conditions to satisfy similar types of needs, certain patterns of “social relationships” emerge. Certain arrangements and material structures become necessary to serve as loci for such interactions and relationships. A number of “social institutions” such as the family, economic institutions, political institutions emerge as society’s organized way to regulate human interactions as people strive to meet their collective needs. A number of localized norms inform interactions within each institution; and a number of social and religious values inform all interactions in all social institutions. (Olsen, 1968).

Each social institution, then, serves a number of related functions, and is comprised of a number of related social “statuses”, each of which has certain social “roles” prescribed for those who occupy each status. A person is assigned a number of statuses in different social institutions, and is expected to behave in accordance with the socially assigned “role expectations”. In the end, a person would occupy a number of statuses whose more or less clearly identifiable role expectations may or may not be easily reconcilable. Role conflict, in its different forms, presents itself as an imminent possibility, especially in times of rapid social change. In any case, we are told that to the extent that a person behaves in ways that adequately fulfill his role obligations he is said to be socially well-adjusted. When he fails to meet these role obligations, he is said to be socially maladjusted. Maladjustment is accentuated by problems in social relationships, predictably enough, with those involved in the enactment of the social roles concerned. A person would then be said to experience “problems in social functioning”. These problems take place exactly at the "interface" between the psychological aspects of personal coping and social aspects of societal expectations, hence the designation: "psychosocial problems". 

All human beings, then, are prone to experience psychosocial difficulties at one time or another in their lives. The individual tries to tackle these difficulties on his own, or with the help of others in his close natural social network. If such efforts fail and the difficulties become more complicated and emotionally charged, the individual may seek professional help from certain social agencies. Teams of helping professionals (such as social workers, counselors, psychologists and psychotherapists) who man these agencies provide their services to such individuals (normally referred to as clients). On the basis of a thorough investigation of each individual case, they reach a specific diagnosis, and put together a treatment plan with the full involvement of the client. Examples of such problems may include marital problems, child abuse, truancy, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, absenteeism in the workplace.. etc. as the case may be.

The specific assessment and subsequent intervention by the helping professional rest on the general “practice theory” he subscribes to. Unfortunately, the helping professions faithfully follow the views we summarized in our discussion on human nature outlined above. Psychosocial problems are understood in psychological terms as manifestations of certain intra-psychic conflicts or as learned behavior. In sociology-oriented textbooks they are seen as localized manifestations of social problems, which in their turn are either characterized as being aspects of the process of social disorganization or as deviant behavior. Social disorganization is expected - like fate – to be a natural, unavoidable consequence of rapid social change. Deviant behavior occurs as a result of the always-present discontinuities in socialization processes. Different theorists emphasize different aspects of these processes such as those emphasized by the deviant subculture, reference group, or anomie approaches, among others (Rubington and Weinberg, 1995).

A fair assessment of the above shows clearly that modern social science indeed provide us with at least a number of very useful concepts, which capture the essence of certain social regularities, patterns of behavior which recur over time. Note in particular the concepts in parentheses above. Social interaction, social relationships, social norms, social values, social institutions, social statuses, social roles, role expectations, role conflict… etc. The way in which these concepts (and many others) are linked together to provide a general analytical framework that applies to most (if not all) organized human aggregations. However, once we move beyond the mechanics of the processes of social organization, social disorganization, and social reorganization, we are entering a different terrain. As will be evident in the following discussion, the substantive theories used to fill these analytical frameworks, and the weight provided each group of factors within each configuration differ drastically from what is postulated by the Islamic perspective. 

We have seen above that the explanations found in social science literature, both in their psychological or sociological versions, tend to limit themselves to factors which are this-worldly, which are material and non-spiritual. They have no room for God or the Day of Judgement in their explanations. Theorists tend to emphasize certain relentless social processes and psychological dynamics, which invariably lead to personal and social suffering as part and parcel of social living. The helping professions follow the leads provided by social science theories and do their best to integrate psychological with sociological concepts. Social work literature for example (with some risk of oversimplification) seems to basically understand psychosocial problems to be caused by the following (cf.: Northen, 1987:173):

a. Failure to satisfy human needs, and the resulting frustration and aggression.

b. Disturbed social relationships issuing from the above, with accompanying maladjustment, and problems in social functioning.

c. The effects of broader social processes, such as rapid social change and social disorganization, which translates into the failure of social institutions to effectively perform their functions.

Once again it is the same old story of human beings left for themselves, in an arid, tortured, meaningless, and then terminal life. However, we are not saying that the social sciences are monolithic, or that there are no dissident views. Indeed some of the best minds in the social sciences have tended to call attention to the transcendent aspects of being, but those are still in the minority, and most of them could hardly break loose completely from the prevailing cultural influences.

Integral Islamic Perspective:

From an Islamic perspective, worldly needs (i.e. physiological needs, safety needs, love needs, esteem needs, and need for self-actualization in the early Maslow conceptualization), play an important part in human life. The idea of a hierarchy of prepotency, however, may be questioned. Even the later Maslow’s brilliant "Theory of Metamotivation” falls short of settling the issue of human needs at a level on par with that of the Islamic worldview, as he actively - and one may say arrogantly - denies any role for the transcendent (Maslow, 1971:321-322).

Referring back to the Islamic understanding of human nature, we have to remember that the essence of man, his defining characteristic, is the spiritual aspects - the human being’s quality of relationship with his Creator, on whom the gratification of all human needs (in this life and in the hereafter) depends. We may then legitimately assume that human needs within the Islamic perspective fall into two basic categories:

1) Iftiquar to Allah (swt): that is complete and immutable need for intimate closeness to God and need for attaining His pleasure or approbation (ridwan), thus keeping a sound spiritual life, and a serene, healthy “total” life. “O ye men! It is ye that have [ultimate] need of Allah: but Allah is the One Free of all wants, worthy of all praise”. [Fatir: 1]

2) Worldly Needs: Physiological, psychological and social needs as described above. 

On the basis of this understanding of the nature of human beings and their basic needs, the following propositions may represent how Muslim social scientists may understand personal or psychosocial problems:

Proposition I : Failure to attain and/or to sustain a sound and profound spiritual sense of relatedness to Allah (THE ONE GOD) is a necessary and sufficient cause for incidence of personal, psychosocial problems in this life; and for a ruinous fate in the hereafter, irrespective of a person’s level of attained material, worldly gratification.

This proposition is based on the following basic notions supported by a large number of verses from the Quran and valid Hadiths. Suffice it here to qoute the following verses from Surat Ta-Ha (123-127). “He said: "Get ye down, both of you, all together, from the Garden, with enmity one to another: but if, as is sure, there comes to you guidance from Me, whosoever follows My guidance, will not lose his way, nor fall into misery. But whosoever turns away from My Message, verily for him is a life narrowed down, and We shall raise him up blind on the Day of Judgment. (Allah) will say: "Thus didst thou, when Our Signs came unto thee, disregard them: so wilt thou, this day, be disregarded. And thus do We recompense him who transgresses beyond bounds and believes not in the Signs of His Lord: and the Penalty of the Hereafter is far more grievous and more enduring."

It is clear from the above (and many other verses) that lack of, or indifference in relating to Allah the Almighty, the Creator, and Sustainer means that the first type of needs, the innate (intrinsic, species-wide for Maslow) spiritual needs of the human being are not gratified. The soul, which innately "knows", and "yearns" for such an affinity with God, a connectedness (for lack of better words) with the divine becomes impoverished, and the “total” human being satisfaction with life diminishes as he misses his vital Divine life-supports. Life becomes a terrible burden indeed, with disease, loss of property, loss of loved ones always probable; and finally with death ominously looming around unpredictably. Existential philosophies, with their accentuation of deep-seated feelings of futility and absurdity, and ultimately suicide, are understandable human reactions under such circumstances. Maslow calls the state resulting from spiritual (in his usage of the term) deprivation "metapathology", which according to him, diminishes our "humanity". On the basis of his vast observations, he lists 28 such “disturbances, diminutions”, salient among which are the following: existential vacuum, meaninglessness, dryness, aridness, futility, cynicism, despair, insecurity, and deadness. It should be remembered here that he was describing the metapathologies of the affluent, who are “already-lower-need-gratified” (Maslow, 1971: 307-309). One may add at this point that contributions such as Maslow’s, as far as they can go, may be useful as beginnings in constructing typologies that could be used in systematic research. The basic determinants of the model, however, as we have seen have to be solidly rooted in Islamic revealed knowledge. 

On the other hand, with the "spiritual" needs gratified, a person deeply feels connected to the ultimate source of all good in this life and beyond. In times of crisis or loss, he knows that everything is destined by The Almighty, who is worthy of all trust. Because it may be a test of faith in Him, any difficulties the human being faces are tackled by the person, at once forcefully and in all serenity. This is to be explained by the fact that the person would be looking forward for either the prompt alleviation of the difficulty by the mercy of Allah, or be looking forward to compensation and reward from Him in the aftermath, or indeed for both. On the other hand, in times of smooth sailing, affluence and control over one's life, a “connected” person cannot be proud or vain or destructive, neither would he even desire to transgress his bounds. He deeply knows that it is all God’s bounty that should be used in the correct ways prescribed by Him. Even more importantly, he fully knows that he is accountable for his ways of utilization of these bounties in the Day of Judgement. In both cases, then, a person should be expected to be leading a good, balanced life which is meaningful and gratifying for himself as well as productive and peaceable for others.

Proposition II: Deprivation of worldly needs (physiological, psychological or social) is a necessary but not sufficient cause for personal, psychosocial problems. 

That gratification of “basic” human needs is necessary “to avoid illness, to avoid diminution of humanness”, as Maslow puts it, has indeed been a dictum of modern social sciences since he wrote the original treatise on “A Theory of Human Motivation” in 1943 (which has been reprinted more than 20 times in different texts all the way to 1969). That dictum could be accepted within the general framework of the Islamic worldview (while not stopping at that). Deprivation of these “lower”, worldly needs results in disruptions in the fulfillment of certain life-supporting or life-enhancing processes. But the extent to which a person is affected or injured by such deprivation differs widely, because other significant factors are certainly involved. In the Islamic perspective, the most potent factor involved here, which is capable of superceding the effects of basic-need-deprivation, once again, is the quality of spiritual life, or degree of closeness to God. For those who are spiritually developed, frustration thresholds are so high that loss or even calamity is tolerated with patience, perseverance and hope - all resulting from deep trust in Allah, the Almighty. The correlation between a person’s feeling of closeness to God and his ability to cope with life vicissitudes is a dictum of the Islamic perspective. Even at the most extreme levels of deprivation, or the ultimate pending loss of life itself for good cause (istish’had), the same principle applies.

V - Professional Interventions in Psychosocial Problems

Helping individuals cope with their psychosocial problems is achieved through two complementary professional activities: assessment and intervention (Anderson, 1981: 134-138). Assessment is an activity directed towards understanding the client and his problem, and then, developing a plan of action. Detailed information about the “client-problem-environment” triad should lead to the establishment of interventive goals, strategy and techniques. The goal of professional intervention, which is based on the results of assessment, is to help effect specific changes in the client and/or the social environment (Anderson & Carter, 1974). This model describes a straightforward "problem-solving" approach, as applied within a "planned change" perspective that we can hardly disagree with, that is, in general. It could be applied across a wide variety of situations and cultural backgrounds. The general structure of the model allows it to be filled in with the theoretical "content' of choice. Hence its usefulness by way of its generality. This should lead us to examine and contrast the "content" usually employed in the Western context with what may be appropriate in an Islamic context.

Social Assessment :

As discussed earlier, clients are assessed in terms of their social functioning, role performance, social relationships, and external difficulties. Social workers would be looking for evidence of lack of material resources, lack of personal capabilities, lack of knowledge or lack of training. They would be looking for evidence of intra-personal or inter-personal conflicts, role conflicts, inability to make vital decisions.. etc. In the final analysis, it is again the lack of worldly need gratification or the complications of deprivation. Intervention to help clients deal with their personal problems would be directed towards achieving two related goals:

(1) Helping clients achieve better levels of gratification of their worldly needs.

(2) Helping them cope with the complications and aggravations of past deprivations of these needs in their intrapsychic, interpersonal, or social environmental manifestations.

From an Islamic perspective, such needs and their gratification, and the need for dealing with the impact of their deprivation is all understandable. But this approach to solving personal problems is seen as very limited in scope besides being out of alignment with the real dimensions of human existence. Even the effectiveness of professional interventions based on such conceptualizations of psychosocial problems is questioned. Neglecting the vital role played by spiritual factors a) as causal agents (when stunted) and b) as significant factors in the treatment of these problems may indeed lead to ridiculously lopsided and unnecessarily misguided practices. Evaluative studies of practice effectiveness of social work in the past have generally produced discouraging results (Fischer, 1973), despite some alleged "grounds for optimism" (Reid & Hanrahan, 1982) or declarations that "something works" (Thomlinson, 1984). Some consolation indeed! But the problem is even more exacerbated when we look beyond this life as well. What is meant here is that the effectiveness of our interventions even in this-world will be very limited, because we are not taking our clients' spiritual needs (in this life) into consideration. But more importantly, we would neither be helping them achieve (falah) in the hereafter.

The alternative assessment -from an Islamic perspective- would focus on both the worldly and the spiritual aspects of living. It should be clear from our discussion thus far that the helping professional should direct a lot of attention to the assessment of the client's status in terms of his degree of spiritual development, that is, the quality of his connectedness to his Creator -- without ignoring his worldly needs in the traditional fashion. Such assessment would cover not only the cognitive aspects (belief system), but also the emotive (love and healthy fear of God) and the volitional and behavioral (acts of worship; good deeds) aspects as well. In what follows, we will focus on the spiritual aspects of assessment rather than on the other aspects related to the so-called basic needs, which are extensively covered in the traditional social work literature.

In terms of spiritual development, we would expect to find three basic types of clients. These, however, should be understood as ideal types, arranged across a continuum, rather than representing discrete entities:

Type I. Client with a Sound “Belief” System that Commands a Living “Heart”:

The client, in this case, has a sound Tawhidi belief system, which is so deeply held that it totally controls his "heart" and directs his emotional life, hence, his behavior comes out naturally commensurate with the sharia injunctions - doing basically what pleases Allah (swt). Such a person would be assessed as "spiritually developed". His life is generally serene, i.e. in times of loss and bereavement he would be patient and persevering, trusting in Allah; and in times of plentifulness and abundance he would be the giving type, without being vain or even proud (in the negative sense). It is interesting to compare these characteristics with those empirically catalogued by Maslow for the characteristics of the already-self-actualized persons (1971: 298-199).

Type II. Client with a Sound Belief that Fails to Reach the Heart: 

The client here also has a sound Tawhidi belief system, but this cognitive belief does not have a total command over his heart. A certain degree of detachment between words and deeds exists. He believes in God and talks a lot about it, but his behavior is no proof that trust in God is a vital force in the determination of courses of action he opts for. His emotional life has an inconsistent quality to it, or may in extreme cases show symptoms of emotional disturbance. As a result, behavior is erratic, as a general rule. At times it reflects his sound belief, but at others it is misguided and unproductive (in the Islamic usage).

Type III. Client Has a Distorted Belief System:

The client, in this case, has a mangled or distorted belief system. His Tawhid is impure. It is mixed up with certain false beliefs that sway him away from complete trust in his creator. Holding to such false beliefs (e.g. that certain saints - dead or alive - could indeed change his lot), or being prone to all sorts of doubts or to ignorantly following every caller to a divergent, humanly invented belief have far-reaching existential consequences. The result is a heart, which is torn into pieces, a human being pathetically stranded in life, left to his own finite resources. Both in times of need and/or of plenty, his behavior tends to betray the same pattern described under overindulgence and excessiveness above.

Interventive Strategies And Techniques:

With some oversimplification, it could be said that the traditional interventive approaches to helping clients cope with their personal, psychosocial problems would take the following form:

a. Rectification of the adverse conditions which caused the difficulties, 

b. Alteration of the states of being resulting from the difficulties, and

c. Capacity-building to help prevent future incidence of problems.

In a nutshell, this means the provision of needed resources, repairing strained or broken relationships with significant others, helping with role performance, and provision of emotional support throughout.

The "professional relationship" between the worker and the client has an important strategic role to play in the overall achievement of the desired outcomes. It could be seen as the bridge upon which the services are provided and client acceptance and cooperation are gained. Interviewing skills are paramount in this context, whether used with clients or with others involved in the problematic situation. Techniques employed include obtaining information, verbal and nonverbal communication, active listening, observation, empathizing, encouraging, supporting, reassurance, clarification, education, understanding feelings, and confrontation. Workers also utilize broader techniques necessary to effect change such as advocacy, brokerage, negotiation, planning, evaluation, and resource mobilization (Sheafor, et al. 1988; Ho,1980).

Once gain, professional intervention along these traditional lines should have salutary effects in many respects. However, it should be clear by now that the Islamic perspective would be looking far beyond this limited and limiting conceptualization. Intervention along these lines may indeed help alleviate certain symptoms of problematic situations. It may go as far as significantly modifying certain noxious social environmental influences affecting clients' lives. But how far can such improvements go in terms of improving the "totality" of people's lives in this world and beyond? Professional intervention from an Islamic perspective would definitely attempt to address these broader concerns. The cornerstone of such interventions, naturally, revolves around the concept of "spiritual development". This, then, sets the stage and the tone for the utilization of any number of the techniques and tools of trade referred to above.

Professional intervention from an Islamic perspective would naturally has as its point of departure the results of social assessment. Space would not allow a detailed treatment of issues involved on selection of strategies and techniques to be employed with each of the three types of clients that we expect to encounter on the basis of assessment of level of spiritual development. Suffice it to say here that type I clients would not present the worker with really serious challenges. Their high level of spiritual development means that their difficulties would normally be a result of lack of certain material provisions, uncomplicated with emotional overtones. They may also lack certain social skills that would otherwise have helped them achieve better role performance. They may have trouble dealing with certain formal organizations and therefore need help in the form of advocacy, brokerage or negotiation. On the other extreme, type III clients will need all services that type II clients would need, in addition to a special corrective type of help with their botched beliefs (referred to sometimes as "ontological therapy" by some Western writers). So we do not need to dwell too much on intervention with these two types. Our focus will be, then, on how to deal with Type II clients.

Type II clients do indeed present the worker with real professional challenges on account of two factors:

1. Intractability: Cases falling under this category are inherently complicated. The interaction of worldly troubles with the underlying spiritual shortcomings aggravates the symptoms. Superficial treatment (that excludes the spiritual factors) would hardly be very effective. The client resists attempts at in-depth interventions. Which makes working with such cases a real challenge. Clients would not easily admit -even to themselves- that their problems are partially caused by certain spiritual weaknesses. Such admission would fly in the face of their self-concept as good believers, leading to loss of balance. Cases are thus complicated, and fraught with resistance.

2. Prevalence: The number of people prone to type II difficulties is immense indeed contrasted to the other two types. This means that the helping professions should divert enough resources to deal with this category of clients in particular.

We proceed now to describe, in brief, the general outline of the strategies to be adopted in working with this particular type of client, that is, type II. We have to remember that such a person displays a noticeable degree of inconsistency. His emotional allegiance (his heart) is divided. At times, as said before, his behavior reflects his correct belief system. Other times, he acts as if he is completely on his own - bereft of any support beyond his own (or his social network) cunning – as if there is virtually no divine intervention in human affairs. A certain type of "false" trust in himself robs him of the natural serenity (which comes with trust in God) when he faces difficult times. This false confidence in self unleashes unbridled indulgence at time of plentifulness. The result is a turbulent, or at extremes, chaotic life. Material and this-worldly needs are overly and easily tended to, but it becomes harder and harder for him to cater for his crying spiritual needs. His total being suffers as a result.

The basic strategy for working with Type II cases would accordingly focus on enhancing the client's spiritual development through due restoration of balance between bodily needs and spiritual needs. In this case, where the body gets most of the attention, this translates into helping the client gradually push aside his customary preoccupation with the material (or the worldly in general) to give leeway for the spiritual. This is only a reflection of the Islamic worldview that emphasizes moderation and the keeping of balance between the two. 

The specific interventions designed to achieve such goal in such cases may consist of the following:

(1) Establishing a special type of professional relationship based on affinity in God:

Traditional conceptualizations of professional relationships are inadequate in as much as they are interested only in gaining client cooperation and compliance, within the limited expectations of the agency - rather than the expanded perspective of caring for the client-as-brother in terms of his commitment to his Creator. In the Islamic perspective, relationship is a lot deeper - exploring and enhancing spiritual attachment to God. Consequently it is more difficult to establish and to sustain. Clients will normally resist engaging in such explorations, which should be understood and duly dealt with by the worker.

(2) Helping the client accept the fact that he has a problem that he cannot handle himself; and that he needs professional help of a more than superficial nature. This acknowledgement is necessary if the client is to commit himself to an often painful therapeutic process. Painful decisions has to be made and abided with. Without such acceptance, he can hardly be expected to cooperate in making the life changes he needs to commit himself, for him to be able to tackle his current and future problems. Normally, as the client feels the painfulness of the current problem, he may be ready to consider alternatives. The pressures of especially acute situations may help shake his false pride, thus opening the door for improvement.

(3) Provision of material resources and other services to satisfy the worldly needs, which the client may be looking for. This sends a message to the client that the worker is interested in helping him in ways he can understand. Otherwise clients may think that accepting the Islamic framework for help means something like paying lip service and indulging in sensitive discussions in lieu of concrete results.

(4) Helping the client review his life situation as is reflected in the current difficulty. The most important goal here is to help the client make the connection between his suffering and the way he leads his life away from trust in Allah. Clarification of the consequences of false dependence on self in contrast with vigorous action coupled with dependence on Allah is pivotal at this stage.

(5) Starting of the progressive program of spiritual development with those clients who have shown interest in finding their way for spiritual betterment. This program should basically consist of the selection of calculated amounts of acts of worship and of good deeds for the client to perform regularly. These may include progressing from the obligatory to the optional prayers, fasting, and zakah (in that case sadakah). They may on the other hand include services to needy relatives or neighbors, or volunteering time advocating the cause of the disadvantaged for the sake of Allah. These measures should invariably include continuous remembrance of Allah (Zikr) and dedication of special times for contemplation of parts of the Noble Quran.

(6) Reconsideration of the original problem, and of the whole life situation in light of the newly acquired insights, capacities, and strengths by virtue of going through the whole experience, especially what transpired during the helping episode. For those Allah has destined to be among the successful, this would be the beginning of a new life at a higher level of existence than they have ever hoped to be possible. For others who were less fortunate, they would emerge from the experience satisfied that they have received the goods and services that they expected to get. If the worker was competent enough to reach an accurate assessment as to sift out those who would positively respond to his offer of help at the deeper level from those who would not, there would be no problem of such clients feeling otherwise. And if the worker was sensitive enough not to be bitter about these clients declining his offer of spiritual help, the client will emerge with a pleasant memory of the encounter, which strangely enough may positively work on its own on his consciousness, if Gods wills it.

(7) Reinforcement: It should be remembered at all times that the achievement of a higher level of spiritual development at any point in time is no guarantee that the human being stays there. The dynamic forces in perpetual interaction in the human psyche are always vying for position. Unless the person persistently and diligently continues the task of purification (tazkiyah) he is prone to slide back to giving up and surrendering his gains, or worse. The worker has to help his clients understand these facts of life, and has to help them learn how to always keep on top of things so that they may avoid that fate.

Vi - Conclusion

As was alluded to earlier, the current attempt at “integral theorizing” cannot be accepted at face value, notwithstanding the amount of documentation even from Quranic verses we may choose, and references that we can compile in its support. This only represents the first phase of the application of the Islamization of social science methodology. The next step is to derive hypotheses from the propositions presented above, and to test these hypotheses in the real world. It is only on the basis of such “rigorous testing” that the validity of these theoretical constructs could be judged. To the extent that research findings and practice tests support this rendition of the Islamic perspective on psychosocial problems, their robustness as valid interpretations of the realities they claim to explain would be attested to. If, on the other hand, they did not withstand the rigors of testing, then they have to be modified or even discarded – for they reflect a humble human rendition of what may represent the Islamic perspective on the subject. And better explanatory schemes that reflect the true Islamic perspective, (which are commensurate with Allah's observable Sunan in human behavior and social relationships) should be found. 

A few examples of such "research problems and hypotheses" amenable to testing are presented here for the purpose of illustration:

1) Is there really any relationship between the a person’s level of spiritual development (or religiosity, for that matter) and (protection from) incidence of psychosocial problems?

2) What manifestations of spiritual development (performance of specific acts of worship, doing good to others, attitudes characteristic of those who are spiritually developed) are better predictors of (protection from) psychosocial problems?

3) How do specific psychological/sociological factors interact with spiritual factors as causal agents for incidence of psychosocial problems?

4) For persons prone to suffer repeatedly from psychosocial problems, what factors are more predictive of recidivism? 

5) Evaluative studies to measure the effectiveness of the Islamic professional intervention with specific problems (violence, drug addiction, out of wedlock pregnancy, crime.. etc.

6) Evaluative studies to measure the effectiveness of the Islamic professional intervention with specific types of client characteristics such as age groups (juveniles, adolescents, adults), education (the highly educated, the less educated, and the uneducated).

7) Evaluative studies to measure the effectiveness of the Islamic professional intervention with various levels of acuteness of problems.

Examples of propositions which could be tested in well-designed practice tests, or that may help in the development of the model itself may include:

(1) To what extent do clients, of different types, accept the worker's offer of help with the enhancement of their level of spiritual development?

(2) What types of resistance are shown by clients as the worker attempts to help them make the connection between their current crises and the quality of their spiritual development?

(3) What specific helping techniques are more effective in dealing with what types of resistance?

One final observation is in order here regarding the research and practice phase of the Islamization of social science methodology. As we have seen, the level of "spiritual development " is a core variable in research in the Islamic perspective. The concept is evidently unconventional, with hardly any established scales for its measurement, in comparison with the more familiar empirical variables. This poses a challenge for all research done from the Islamic perspective, which introduces variables that span the area between what is observable (by the use of the senses) and what is not. This is not a hopeless situation as it may appear. It only calls for directing enough energy to explore and develop this yet uncharted area. To reassure the scientifically fainthearted, this final quotation from Maslow may help, as he declares: "Since the spiritual life .. is part of the Real Self, which is instinctoid, it can in principle be introspected. It has "impulse voices" or "inner signals" which though weaker than the basic needs, can yet be "heard"(p. 318). Whether we agree or disagree with Maslow's evolutionary, material interpretation of the spiritual life, the statement still points not only to the possibility but to desirability of developing research techniques sensitive enough to gauge these subtle, elusive signals, as Al-Ghazalli may otherwise would have put it. Fortunately, more recently, certain modern social scientists are taking the challenge on themselves. Peter Reason (1986; 1993; 1994) and John Heron (1996), among others cooperating in a significant number of New Paradigm Research efforts, have already started the process of finding out research methods and data collection techniques designed to tap the inner, experiential meaning, which hold great promise when utilized to tap the deeper aspects of our spiritual life. 

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